Navigation instruments from different eras of navigation. Navigation - determining the location of the vessel Using radar

Long before the advent of satellites and computers, various “cunning” devices helped sailors navigate the oceans. One of the most ancient - the astrolabe - was borrowed from Arab astronomers and simplified for working with it at sea.

Using the disks and hands of this device, it was possible to measure the angles between the horizon and the sun or other celestial bodies. And then these angles were converted into values ​​of the earth’s latitude. Gradually, the astrolabe was replaced by simpler and more accurate instruments. These are the crossbar, quadrant and sextant, invented between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Compasses with divisions marked on them and having received an almost modern appearance back in the 11th century allowed sailors to steer the ship straight along the intended course.

By the beginning of the 15th century, “blind reckoning” began to be used. To do this, they threw logs overboard, tied to these ropes - lines. Knots were tied on the ropes at a certain distance. The sundial was used to mark the time of unwinding of the line. We divided the length by the time and obtained, of course very inaccurately, the speed of the ship.

Latitude count

In the Middle Ages, sailors determined their position relative to the equator, that is, latitude, by looking at the sun or the stars. The angle of inclination of the celestial body was found using an astrolabe or a quadrant (pictures below). Then they opened their table, which was called ephemeris, and from it they determined the position of the ship.

Measuring the height of celestial bodies

To measure the height of a celestial body, the navigator had to point a metal rod at this body, looking at the body, move crossbars of different lengths along the rod until they reached the horizon line. Marks were marked on the staff with values ​​of heights above the horizon, that is, above sea level.

Determination of longitude

Sailors tried to do this with the help of sundials and tench - a thick rope with knots tied on it. The amount of sand poured into the clock was used to determine the elapsed time, and the speed of movement was determined by the length of the line thrown overboard and wound around the ship's eye. By multiplying the daily travel time by the speed, the distance traveled was obtained. Knowing where the ship started its journey, in what direction and how far it traveled in a day, one could roughly imagine moving in the east-west direction, that is, a change in longitude.

The ship pictured below is the Victoria. On it, Magellan and his crew made the world's first trip around the world and returned home to Portugal in 1522. Their route is shown as a wavy line on the left on a map issued in 1543.

In the wheelhouse of every merchant ship, a variety of navigational equipment, instruments, devices and instruments are installed, with the help of which the captain and navigator ensure safe control of the ship.

Navigation equipment- these are ship technical means with which the ship is equipped to solve navigation problems.

Navigation- the process of decision-making and control of the course and speed of a vessel when moving from one point to another, taking into account environmental conditions and the intensity of shipping.

Navigation device is a ship's technical means designed to solve one or more navigation problems.

Navigation tool is a ship navigation device designed to perform manual work when solving navigation problems.

Navigation device is a device designed to perform individual functions of measuring navigation parameters, processing, storing, transmitting, displaying and recording data when solving navigation problems on a ship.

For better viewing, all photos are clickable.

Ship's clock.The ship's clock records the time of all events. Ship's clocks must be checked daily against time signals and must have an accuracy of no more than one minute. All ship clocks must be set to the same time zone. One ship's clock must be set to Greenwich Time or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

Magnetic compass (magnetic compass). The most reliable and irreplaceable device. If, of course, it is in good working order and is regularly checked in a coastal workshop. At least once every two years, the deviation of the magnetic compass must be destroyed, the residual deviation must be determined and a deviation table must be compiled. On some ships, a main magnetic compass and a directional compass are installed. If only one compass is installed on a boat, then as a rule there should be one spare compass. The magnetic compass is a backup source of heading guidance for the autopilot and ECDIS. A separate article about the magnetic compass is located. Lifeboats and rescue boats must have magnetic compasses for course guidance.

Gyrocompass (Gyro compass). Gyro-compass. The main source of heading guidance. The heading indication from the gyrocompass is sent to radars, ARPA, ECDIS, autopilot, digital heading indicator, gyrocompass repeaters in the wheelhouse, charthouse, bridge wings, and tiller compartment.

Repeater gyrocompass With (Gyro repeater with taking bearing device). They are installed on the wings of the bridge and are used to take visual bearings. The bearings of lighthouses and signs are taken to determine the ship's position at sea near the coast. The bearings of celestial bodies are taken to determine compass corrections. Bearings of approaching ships are taken to determine whether there is a risk of collision with them. The photo shows a simple direction finder. There are also optical direction finders, in which lenses are installed to bring the direction-finding objects closer.

Digital indicator course(Transmitting heading device). A device for digital display of the ship's heading. Required device.

Binoculars (Binocular). Serves to recognize objects located at some distance from the ship and difficult to distinguish with the naked eye. Also used for surveillance in accordance with Rule 5 of COLREG-72.

Radar (Radar). The radar is used to prevent collisions with other ships and for navigation purposes - determining the location of the ship by bearings and distances of coastal landmarks measured using a radar. Serves to monitor the environment in accordance with Rule 5 of COLREG-72.

ARPA (ARPA). A device for preventing collisions with other ships and floating objects. Serves to monitor the environment in accordance with Rule 5 of COLREG-72. Most modern radars implement the ARPA function and therefore ARPA is practically never found as a separate device.

Electronic cartographic navigation and information system - ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System ECDIS). Electronic cartography devices are used to display the navigation map, navigation information and the location of the vessel according to the coordinates of the GPS receiver on displays. Many ships are equipped with two sets of ECDIS equipment and do not have paper navigation charts.

Receiver satellite navigation(Global Positioning System - GPS). They are used to determine the coordinates of the vessel using the global satellite system. Displays the speed of the vessel relative to the ground. Distance traveled. Serves to enter the coordinates of waypoints on the transition route, compile a transition route, and transmit the transition route to the radar. Shows the direction and distance to waypoints, deviation from the route, time of arrival at waypoints.

Echo sounder (Echo sounder). A device for measuring the depth under the keel of a ship.

Lag(Speed ​​and distance log). The device is used to measure the speed of the vessel and the distance traveled by the vessel. Measures the speed of the vessel both relative to the water and relative to the ground. Speed ​​relative to water is necessary for transmission to the radar and ARPA to solve problems of divergence from other vessels.

Automatic identification system (Automatic Identification System – AIS ). Serves to receive and transmit ship data using a VHF transceiver. Displays data received from other vessels on the device display and transmits them to the radar and ECDIS. Serves to monitor the environment in accordance with Rule 5 of COLREG-72.

Navigation light panel (Navigation Lights ). Each vessel must display lights in accordance with the rules of COLREG-72. The navigation light panel provides a visual and audible warning if any light goes out.

Ship's whistleShip’ s whistle). The ship's whistle is used to give warning and fog signals in accordance with the rules of COLREG-72.

Device for sending fog signals of a vessel (Automatic fog signal device). For sending fog signals in automatic mode.

Monitoring system for monitoring the performance of the watch officer (Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System – BNWAS. Serves to give an audible signal in case of incapacity of the watch officer. Must be turned on at all times after the vessel leaves the berth and before mooring at the berth.

Autopilot (Autopilot). Serves to keep the vessel on course in automatic mode. If the device has a mode for keeping the vessel on the track, then the autopilot will himself change the course of the vessel to bring it to the next waypoint. When approaching a waypoint at a specified distance, the device will sound a sound signal; if the officer on watch presses the confirmation button, the device will shift the rudder and take the ship to the next specified course.

Flight data recorder –VDR – Voyage Data Recorder . Black box of the ship. Data recording device for navigation instruments and devices.

NAVTEX receiver –NAVTEX receiver. Serves to receive various warnings in automatic mode: navigation, meteorological, disaster and others.

Inmarsat Terminal – C (Inmarsat – C). Used to receive and send messages via a satellite communication system.

System for long-range identification and control of the location of vessels - OSDR (Long Range Identification and Tracking System – LRIT ). Serves to transmit vessel data (coordinates, heading, speed, vessel identifier) ​​automatically via a satellite communication system.

Rudder shift axiometer (Rudder Angle Indicator). A device indicating the direction and angle of the rudder.

Angular rate of turn indicator (Rate of turn indicator). Shows the angular speed of the ship's turn.

Sound receiving and playback device (Sound Reception System). The device is used to reproduce external sounds in closed bridges.

Sextan (Sextant). The navigation sextant (Sextant) is used to measure the heights of celestial bodies, which are used to calculate position lines and determine the position of the ship by astronomical methods. They also measure the heights of coastal and floating navigational signs and other objects. In addition, true navigators use a navigation sextant to measure the horizontal angles between three navigation marks and, using two horizontal angles, determine the ship’s location at sea. But only very zealous navigators determine the ship’s position in this way; unfortunately, most modern navigators can be classified as “GPS navigators,” that is, those who, except using GPS, are no longer able to determine the ship’s position at sea. Professional degradation however. There is a separate article about the navigation sextant.

Chronometer (Chronometer). Shows time on the Greenwich meridian. Before the invention of radio, the chronometer was the only source of accurate time on board a ship. The accuracy of determining the position of a sailing ship at sea depended on the accuracy of the chronometer and knowledge of its daily course. Chronometers were checked by astronomers at observatories, their daily cycle was determined with the greatest possible accuracy, and before the ship sailed to sea, they were delivered on board with the greatest care. After a long ocean voyage, at the first opportunity, the chronometers were brought ashore to check them and determine the daily cycle. Each ship had several chronometers. With the advent of radio receivers, it became possible to receive precise time radio signals to determine the daily cycle of chronometers and the requirements for their accuracy decreased somewhat. With the advent of satellite navigation and the significant weakening of the role of astronomical observations in navigation, chronometers on almost all merchant ships were replaced by precision watches. However, until now, individual precision watches used to store time are called chronometers. The navigator in charge of navigation instruments is required to keep a chronometer log in which to record the daily progress of the chronometer.

Mechanical stopwatch (Stopwatch). Serves to record the time at the time of astronomical and navigational observations, to determine the chronometer correction, to compare and install ship clocks. To determine the characteristics of lighthouse lights and other navigational signs and buoys. Used to determine the rolling and pitching period of the ship and the wave period.

Star globe (Star Globe). Used to solve problems of nautical astronomy. You can read more about the structure of the star globe

Handheld Anemometer (Wind anemometer). Used to measure wind speed.

Automatic device for measuring wind speed and direction (Wind speed and direction indicator ). Used to measure wind direction and speed automatically.

Ship's gongShip’ s gong). Serves to provide fog signals in accordance with the rules of COLREG-72. Mandatory for all vessels 100 meters or more in length. The gong is a brass disk with a side. It is hit manually with a beater, which is a handle with a spherical striking part at the end.

Signal flags – MCC (ICS). The flags are used to provide signals in accordance with the International Code of Signals (ICS).

Signal figures - balls, cylinder, rhombus (Signaling Shapes). Serve to set signals in accordance with the rules of COLREG-72.

Chart table. Installed in the holy of holies for each navigator - in the chart room. On it, a navigation map with preliminary plotting is laid out in the sea, and on it, the executive plotting is carried out with observations of the vessel’s location. Navigation maps are stored in drawers on the desk. Navigation tools can be stored in side lockers.

Weights for cards. They are used to hold the navigation chart on the chart table while the ship is rocking. Typically made of rubber. There is lead inside the weight as a weighting agent. More details about the use of weights can be found in the article« ».

Navigator's magnifying glass (magnifier). Enlarges hard-to-see images on the navigation map.

Navigator's parallel ruler (Navigational ruler).

Navigator's protractor (Protractor ). Serves for plotting, determining the location of the vessel and other navigational tasks on the navigation map.

Navigator's meter (Navigational divider). Serves for plotting, determining the location of the vessel and other navigational tasks on the navigation map. The meters are made of brass or chrome-plated steel. They come in various types and sizes.

Navigator's compass. As a rule, for navigation purposes, ordinary drawing compasses of various sizes and types are used, the main thing is that they are convenient to use on the navigation map and do not cause significant damage to the map.


Navigation protractor.A navigational instrument that is used to determine the position of a ship using two horizontal angles.

The procedure for determining the position of a ship by two horizontal angles.

Inclinometer. Used to determine the ship's roll angle.

Barometer (Barometer). Used to determine atmospheric pressure.

Barograph (Barograph ). Serves to determine atmospheric pressure and monitor its changes. The barometer reading is recorded on paper tape.

Thermometer (Thermometer). Used to measure ambient temperature.

Hygrometer(Hygrometer ). Serves to measure the humidity of the surrounding air.

Computer with satellite Internet connection. Used to receive weather maps and plan a safe route based on weather forecasts. It also serves to transmit and receive operational information to ensure safe operation of the vessel.

Depending on the special purpose, special instruments and devices are installed on the bridge, and the watch officer uses them to solve special problems.

GPS


astrolabe


rail, quadrant And sextant


lines


Navigators' assistants

The most important thing for any ship is to know its exact location at sea. At any time. The safety of the vessel itself, the cargo and the entire crew depends on this. I would not be discovering America if I said that the ship is currently controlled by a computer. Man only controls this process. In this article I will talk about marine assistants - satellite navigation systems that help ships obtain the exact coordinates of their location. I will also tell you what instruments ancient sailors used. Currently, all ships are equipped with GPS receivers - global positioning system. While flying around our planet, navigation satellites continuously send streams of radio signals to it. These satellites belong to the US Naval Navigation Satellite System (NMNSS) and, more recently, the US Global Positioning System (GPS or GPS). Both systems enable ships at sea, day and night, to determine their coordinates with great accuracy. Almost up to a meter.

The operating principle of both VMNSS and GSM is based on the fact that on board a ship a special GPS receiver catches radio waves sent by navigation satellites at certain frequencies. Signals from the receiver are continuously sent to the computer. The computer processes them, supplementing them with information about the transmission time of each signal and the position of the navigation satellite in orbit. (Such information reaches VMNSS satellites from ground-based tracking stations, and GSM satellites have time and orbital instruments on board). The navigation computer on the ship then determines the distance between them and the satellite flying in the sky. The computer repeats these calculations at certain intervals and ultimately receives data on latitude and longitude, that is, its coordinates.


How did ancient sailors determine the location of a ship at sea? Long before the advent of satellites and computers, various “cunning” devices helped sailors navigate the oceans. One of the most ancient - astrolabe- was borrowed from Arab astronomers and simplified for working with it at sea. Using the disks and hands of this device, it was possible to measure the angles between the horizon and the sun or other celestial bodies. And then these angles were converted into values ​​of the earth’s latitude.


Gradually, the astrolabe was replaced by simpler and more accurate instruments. These are the transverse crossbars invented between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. rail, quadrant And sextant. Compasses with divisions marked on them and having received an almost modern appearance back in the 11th century allowed sailors to steer the ship straight along the intended course.


By the beginning of the 15th century, “blind reckoning” began to be used. To do this, they threw logs tied to these ropes overboard - lines. Knots were tied on the ropes at a certain distance. The time of unwinding of the line was noted using a sundial or hourglass. We divided the length by the time and obtained, of course very inaccurately, the speed of the ship.


These are the simple instruments that sailors of the past used. By the way, current ships also have a sextant. In a box, in lubricant. And always new. True, rarely anyone uses this device. GPS systems and computers have replaced the old, proven navigation devices. On the one hand, this is a normal phenomenon. Progress. On the other hand... Some captains have a favorite phrase: “What will you do, fellow shipbuilders, when the satellites fail and the entire GPS system fails”? We will re-master the sextant. But I hope that such an outrage will not happen. Because I really wouldn’t want to be in instead of, for example, one miserable morning.

P.S. Photos belong to their rightful owners. Thank you, good people.

Since ships - the creations of human hands - began to plow the seas and oceans, navigators have been faced with the task of determining their own location. Huge waves, squalls and the need to maneuver on tacks, keeping a course against the wind, complicated multi-day voyages, and the ancient sailors did not have enough of a compass. Today, when the location of a ship is determined automatically thanks to GLONASS, it is difficult to imagine the position of a captain who has at his disposal only simple devices for orientation by the stars. Nevertheless, even today graduates of specialized secondary and higher specialized educational institutions own all these devices.

Basic methods of maritime location

Two-coordinate determination of a vessel at (location) is carried out in seven types of ways, including:

  • The oldest is visual.
  • Later, but not much, is astronomical.
  • Topographical-computational, that is, a method of plotting the full path of a ship on a map, indicating points of course change and calculating the distance traveled by multiplying speed by time. It was invented at about the same time as the astronomical method, and is often used together with the two previous ones. Today, automatic calculators do the routine work;
  • Radar, which allows you to combine the picture on the radar screen with a sea map.
  • Radio direction finding. Available in cases where there are signal sources on shore.
  • Radio navigation, using communication means through which the navigator receives the information he needs.
  • Satellite navigation method.

All methods, except the first three, were a consequence of the technological revolution that occurred in the 20th century. They would have been impossible without the discoveries and inventions made by mankind in the field of radio engineering, electronics, cybernetics and breakthroughs in the space sector. Nowadays, it is not difficult to calculate the point in the ocean where a ship is located; determining its coordinates takes a matter of seconds, and, as a rule, they are tracked continuously. Approximately the same technologies are used in aviation navigation and even in such a “mundane” area as driving a car.

Latitude

As you know, the earth is not flat, it has the shape of a somewhat flattened ball. Points on a three-dimensional figure, it would seem, should be described by three Euclidean coordinates, but two are quite enough for geographers and navigators. In order to make a topographical identification of a vessel, you need to name only two numbers, accompanied by the words “northern” (or “southern”) latitude (abbreviated as N or S) and western or “eastern” longitude (otherwise - W. d. or v.d.). These values ​​are measured in degrees. Everything is very simple. Latitudes are calculated from the equator (0°) to the poles (90°), indicating which direction: if closer to Antarctica, then the southern latitude is indicated, and if towards the Arctic, then the northern latitude. Points of the same latitude form circles called parallels. Each of them has a different diameter - from the largest at the equator (about 40 thousand kilometers) to zero at the pole.

Longitude and length measures

Determining the location of the ship is impossible using one coordinate, so there is a second one. Longitude is a conventional number of the meridian, again indicating the direction in which the count is taken. The circle is divided into 360°, its two halves, respectively, equal to 180. The Greenwich meridian, passing through the famous British observatory, is considered to be the zero. On the other side of the planet is its antipode - the 180th. Both of these coordinates (0° and 180°) are indicated without the name of the direction of longitude.

In addition to degrees, there are also minutes - they indicate the position of objects with 60 times greater accuracy. Since all meridians have equal length, they became the measure of length for sailors. One corresponds to one minute of any meridian and is equal to 1.852 km. The metric system was introduced much later, so ship navigators use the good old English mile. Units such as cables are also applicable - it is equal to 1/10 of a mile. Which is surprising, because before the British often counted in dozens rather than tens.

Visual method

As the name implies, the method is based on what the navigator and captain, as well as other crew members on the deck or rigging, see. Previously, in the days of sailing fleets, there was a position of a forward lookout; the post of this sailor was located at the very top, in a specially fenced off place of the mainmast - the klotik. The view was better from there. Determining the ship's location by coastal objects is similar to the simplest method of a pedestrian who knows that he needs, for example, a house on Staroportofrankovskaya Street at number 12, and for accuracy there is another search criterion - a pharmacy located opposite. For sailors, however, other objects serve as landmarks: lighthouses, mountains, islands or any other noticeable details of the landscape, but the principle is the same. You need to measure two or more azimuths (this is the angle between the compass needle and the direction to the landmark), plot them on the map and get your coordinates at the point of their intersection. Of course, such a vessel, or rather its location, is applicable only in the coastal visibility zone, and then in clear weather. In the fog, you can navigate by the sound of the lighthouse siren, and in the absence of surface signs, you can turn to the shoals in shallow water, measuring the depth with a lot.

Astronomy in naval service

The most romantic location method. Around the 18th century, sailors together with astronomers invented a sextant (sometimes it is called a sextant, that’s also correct) - a device with which you can make a fairly accurate two-coordinate determination of a ship based on the position of luminaries in the sky. Its design is complicated at first glance, but in reality you can learn how to use it quite quickly. Its design includes an optical system that should be aimed at the Sun or any star, after first installing the device strictly horizontally. For precise guidance, two mirrors are provided (large and small), and the angular elevation of the luminary is determined using the scales. The direction of the device is set by a compass.

The creators of the device took into account the centuries-old experience of ancient navigators, who relied only on the light of the stars, moon and sun, but created a system that simplifies both learning navigation and the location process itself.

Calculation

Knowing the coordinates of the starting point (exit port), travel time and speed, you can plot the entire trajectory on the map, noting when and by how many degrees the course was changed. This method could be ideal when direction and speed are independent of current and wind. The unevenness of the course and errors in the lag indicator also affect the accuracy of the obtained coordinates. The navigator has at his disposal a special ruler for drawing parallel lines on the map. Determination of maneuverable elements of a sea vessel is carried out using a compass. Usually, at the point of change of direction, the true position is determined using other available methods, and since it, as a rule, does not coincide with the calculated one, a kind of squiggle is drawn between the two points, vaguely reminiscent of a snail and called a “discrepancy”.

Currently, automatic computers are installed on board most ships, which, taking into account the input speed and direction, perform integration over the time variable.

Using radar

Now there are no blank spots left on sea maps, and an experienced navigator, seeing the outlines of the coast, can immediately tell where the watercraft entrusted to his care is located. For example, noticing the light of a lighthouse on the horizon even in fog and hearing the muffled sound of its siren, he will immediately say something like: “We are on the traverse of the Vorontsovsky fire, a distance of two miles.” This means that the ship is at a specified distance on a line connecting at right angles the course and the perpendicular direction to the lighthouse, the coordinates of which are known.

But it often happens that the shore is far away, and there are no visible landmarks. Previously, in the days of the sailing fleet, the ship was “put into a drift”, collecting sails; sometimes, if the capricious nature of the dominant winds and the unpredictability of the bottom (reefs, shoals, etc.) were known, then they anchored and “waited at sea for weather ”, that is, clarification. Now there is no need for such a loss of time, and the navigator can see the coastline by looking at the locator screen. Identifying a vessel using radar is not a difficult task if you have the qualifications. It is enough to combine the image on the navigation device and the map of the corresponding area, and everything will immediately become clear.

Direction finding and radio navigation method

There is such an amateur radio game - “Fox Hunt”. Using homemade devices, its participants look for a “fox” hidden in the bushes or behind the trees - a player who has a working low-power radio station. In the same way, that is, by taking bearings, counterintelligence services identify residents of foreign intelligence services (at least, this was the case before) at the time they sent spy reports. A location requires at least two directions intersecting at the location point, but most often there are more. Since there is always some scatter in the readings, and it is impossible to achieve absolute accuracy, the bearings do not converge at one point, but form a kind of multilateral figure, in the geometric center of which one should, with a high degree of probability, assume one’s location. Landmarks can be pilot signals specially created on the shore (for example, in lighthouses) or emissions from radio stations whose coordinates are known (they are plotted on a map).

Coastal course correction using radio communications is also widely applicable.

By satellites

Today it is almost impossible to get lost in the ocean or sea. The movement of moving objects at sea, in the air and on land is monitored by the Russian Cospas and the international Sarsat. They work on the Doppler principle. It is necessary to install a special beacon on the ship, but the safety and confidence in the successful outcome of the voyage is worth the money spent on it. Direction finders are located on geostationary (“hanging” above a fixed point on the earth’s surface) satellites that make up the system. This service is provided free of charge and, in addition to the rescue function, performs a navigational search for the vessel’s location. The satellite navigation method gives the most accurate coordinates, its use does not cause difficulties, and navigators in our technological age use it most often.

Additional parameter - download

The navigability of a vessel and its possible course are significantly affected by its draft. As a rule, the more part of the hull is immersed in water, the higher the level of its hydrodynamic resistance. There are, however, exceptions, for example, in nuclear submarines the underwater speed exceeds the surface speed, and a special bow “bulb”, if it is completely recessed, creates the effect of better streamlining. One way or another, the speed of movement (stroke) is affected by the mass of cargo (cargo) in holds or tanks. To assess this value, sailors use special marks with marks on the bow, stern and side parts of the hull (at least six scales). These marks are applied individually, each vessel has its own, there is no uniform standard. The technique for determining the weight of cargo on board a ship, called “draft survey,” is based on the use of “draft marks” and is used for many purposes, in particular navigation. The depth of the bottom does not always allow a ship to navigate a specific fairway, and the navigator must take this factor into account.

All that remains is to wish at least those who are going on a voyage.

Navigation translated from Latin means “navigation, navigation.” This is an integral part of the complex of marine sciences, which emerged from them in the process of development of navigation. This includes navigation - focusing on navigational aids, marine astronomy - which studies methods for determining the coordinates of a ship using celestial bodies; and means of navigation, with the help of which dead reckoning is carried out and the location of the vessel is determined.

The very history of people is inextricably linked with the sea and navigation. Human remains dating back more than 30,000 years have been found in the Americas, and many of these ancient people swam across the ocean. How did they do it? Thor Heyerdahl, during his ocean expeditions on prototypes of ancient ships, proved that this was possible. The first ships are known to us from ancient Egyptian records - these are quite sophisticated ships on which the Egyptians carried out brisk trade along the Nile and by sea. These records are more than 4 thousand years old. Since this ancient time, the need for navigation has already arisen.

What questions did the ancient sailors face? Yes, the same as in our time. This is determining your location and direction of travel. At first, busy sea trade routes ran along the coasts, and navigation was carried out along coastal landmarks. If they had to sail across the ocean, then before the eyes of the ancient travelers there was only one landmark - the stars. The cardinal directions were determined by the movement of the sun. And by observing the stars for a long time at night, you can identify stationary objects among them. These are the North Star in the Northern Hemisphere and the stars in the constellation Southern Cross in the Southern Hemisphere. Most likely, focusing on these stars, ancient people explored new spaces and populated continents and islands. The ancients also noticed that although the stars move, the distances between them do not change. Before people's eyes there was a stunning picture of the moving celestial sphere. Now we know that the Earth moves and we move with it. But these observations marked the beginning of astronomy and celestial navigation.

Ancient Phoenician ship. Image on the sarcophagus

The first navigation maps

In order to successfully navigate in space, people sought to build a model of this space in order to know where they were and where to go. Some peoples used an oral tradition, when information about sea routes was transmitted in the form of stories or chants. Sometimes they also used knotted writing. But even a schematic image, a plan of the area, was more clear. This is how cards began to appear. The Polynesians, who crossed the vast Pacific Ocean, had woven mats with the designation of islands and reefs. The Egyptians painted on reeds. However, these maps, despite their great accuracy in describing specific areas and their features, did not answer the main question - in what exact place is the navigator currently located? How long does it take him to get to the chosen port? There was already a fixed point of reference - these were the stars. I had to come up with and decide how to indicate my location on the map. But the original maps were unfortunately inaccurate, because the round surface of the Earth is difficult to plot on a map plane without distortion. Moreover, according to ancient ideas, the earth was flat, which introduced even greater inaccuracy. However, trade developed, especially strongly in the Mediterranean region. Gradually, enormous knowledge was accumulated in navigation, astronomy and other sciences, which was later collected in ancient Greece. These sciences developed later, during the Roman Empire. The Greeks, using their observations and information collected from their predecessors, plotted the outlines of known lands on maps. To indicate the location of these lands and other objects, a coordinate grid was applied to the map. The invention of this well-known grid on maps of parallels and meridians also belongs to the ancient Greeks. The concept of latitude and longitude for determining one's location arose again in Greece as a result of constant observations of the position and height of the Sun during the day and the height of stars above the horizon at night. The measurement measure chosen was the change in the position of the Sun. Observing the luminaries, the Chaldeans divided the circle into 360 parts, where one part - a degree - was the movement of the Sun in the sky by the size of its disk. The degree was divided into 60 minutes of arc, since these people had a sexagesimal number system. This knowledge was learned and developed by the Greeks. Gradually, such concepts as the horizon, ecliptic, and celestial equator entered science. Without these astronomical concepts, it is impossible to determine exact coordinates.

Modern three-dimensional star map

Already in the third century BC. The Greek scientist Eratosthenes determined not only that the Earth is round, but also very accurately calculated the circumference and radius of the earth's sphere. He used an equidistant cylindrical projection in his maps, which gave greater accuracy on maps showing small areas of the earth's surface. Another Greek scientist, Hipparchus, in the third century BC, covered the entire earth with a grid of meridians and parallels. Now it became clear in which area of ​​the map you need to find your coordinates. A little later, the Roman geographer Marinus of Tyre compiled accurate sea maps. For some areas, it very accurately calculates longitude and latitude and plots them on a grid of parallels and meridians. His information was later used by the famous scientist Ptolemy in his works. Marinus, like Eratosthenes, even tried to depict a complete model of the Earth - a globe. His calculations and maps were so accurate that they were adopted as a basis by the Portuguese in the 15th century.

The works of a later scientist, Ptolemy, gave a huge impetus to the science of geography and navigation. Ptolemy drew a map of the world in a conical projection, with parallels and meridians; he designated a grid of coordinates, calculated in degrees, where latitudes were measured from the equator, and longitudes from the westernmost point of the then known world. He interviewed a huge number of merchants and sailors and quite accurately described the coasts and countries, even those that he had not seen. He described a huge number of new places and gave their coordinates. In addition to accurate information, he recorded people’s inventions on maps, so in his maps you can find, for example, lands inhabited by the Dog Head people and other miracles. Subsequently, after Ptolemy, nothing new was invented in cartography, and after the collapse of the Roman Empire, completely dark times began.

Ptolemy's map in modern processing. It quite accurately indicates the lands known to the Greeks at that time

Ancient navigational instruments

The very first navigational instrument was the eyes of the ancient navigator. But with the development of navigation, this was no longer enough. To accurately determine the angle of the luminaries above the horizon, special tools were required. This is how the gnomon first appeared, which was a tall pillar; the time and height of the Sun above the horizon were determined by the ratio of the lengths of the pillar and the shadow from it. The gnomon, in the form of a board with a pole on it, was first used by the Greek merchant and navigator Pytheas to determine latitude back in the 4th century BC. The merchant violated the then-existing ban and went beyond the Pillars of Hercules into the open Atlantic Ocean, where he made his observations. Despite the primitive instrument and excitement, the traveler took readings with an accuracy of several arc minutes. Later, a quadrant was used for celestial navigation observations. The quadrant was an ordinary board hewn from stone or wood. On its surface were drawn vertical and horizontal lines and a 90° arc connecting them, divided into degrees and their parts. A ruler was placed in the center of the arc and could be moved.

Quadrant

The astrolabe, which was used starting from the second century BC, became a more advanced instrument. until the 18th. The astrolabe was essentially a model of the celestial sphere with its important points, circles, poles and axis mundi, meridian, horizon, celestial equator and ecliptic. It was not easy to make observations with such a device. Observing the Sun, Moon or known stars, the ancient celestial navigator brought the circles of a complex instrument into the correct position, after which, using scales graduated on the circles, he calculated the longitude and latitude of the observed body. The most famous mechanism that has come down to us is the ancient Greek device of 32 gears “Antikythera”, raised from the bottom of the sea. Based on the surviving inscriptions on it, we can conclude that this is a celestial navigation device. The mechanism could calculate the configurations of the movement of the Sun, Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, lunar and solar eclipses. The estimated time of manufacture is the period between 100 - 150 BC.

Ancient celestial navigation device

Another device that modern navigators cannot do without - a compass - was also invented in ancient times. The inventors of the compass, the Chinese, according to the entries in their books, began to use the magnetic compass not only for religious needs, but also for navigation about 300 years BC. However, copies of a compass from a later period have reached us. It looked like a magnetized spoon, with its handle pointing south. The Chinese associated each side of the world with its own color. For example, the south was associated with the color red - modern compasses follow this tradition.

Chinese compass

Pilot

Since the voyages of the Egyptians and Phoenicians, huge amounts of information have been accumulated about the coastline, ports of refuge, and anchorages. This knowledge formed the basis of maps and was later used even by Europeans in the Middle Ages. Also, ancient sailors, going out into the ocean, were faced with the phenomenon of ebb and flow. Subsequently, the knowledge was systematized, and already in the ancient Greek navigation, for example, they wrote: “The entire Indian country has a lot of rivers and a very high tide, which intensifies during the new moon and full moon for three days, and is weaker in the intermediate phases.” .

A certain difficulty in historical times was the accurate measurement of time and distance. A water or hourglass was used to measure time, and distances were measured by eye. In Ancient Greece, a system of lighthouses was also adopted to assist captains. The Alexandria Lighthouse, 120 meters high, is very famous. Many sculptures placed on the shore also served as coastal landmarks for ships. The famous statue of the Colossus of Rhodes, 36 meters high, was visible for many miles. And the entrance to large ports at night was illuminated with light - large fires.

The first seafaring schools

With the development of merchant shipping and the increase in the number of sea voyages, the need arose for the transfer of knowledge. There are no mentions of maritime schools of ancient times; most likely, knowledge was passed on orally and in a close circle. One of the ancient famous schools was the school of navigation in Polynesia. On the island of Raiatea, a place was discovered where the expansion of the Polynesians to the rest of the islands of the Pacific Ocean came from, and a place where knowledge about maritime affairs and navigation was transferred - these were the first nautical schools. Representatives of the AMC Yacht Training Center visited this sacred place on the islands. In 2012 we plan to make a second expedition there.

Tapu Tapu Marae on Raiatea Island. Dating back to the 1st millennium BC. These are the surviving remains of one of the first schools of ocean navigation. Photo by Vladimir Vatrunin.

The first textbooks for sailors were written, probably, along with the invention of writing. One of the astronomical navigation textbooks known to us was compiled by Thales of Miletus back 600 years BC. In Greece, the teaching of astronomy, including astronomy for navigation, was carried out in higher educational institutions of that time. The classical schools of navigation known to us were created much later, in the Middle Ages.