Non-removable tires. Graphic core in the microarchitecture Sandy Bridge

Shining- One of the methods of treating periodontal diseases, which makes it possible to reduce the likelihood of loss (removal) of the teeth.

Basic testimony In orthopedic practice - the presence of pathological mobility of the teeth. Shining is desirable for preventing re-inflammation in periodontal tissues after treatment in the presence of chronic periodontitis.

Tires can be removable and non-removable.
Removable tires It can be installed in the absence of some teeth, create good conditions for oral hygiene, carrying out therapy and surgical treatment.

To advantages non-removable tires Refine the prevention of periodontal overloads in any direction of exposure, which removable prostheses do not give. The selection of the type of tire depends on the set of parameters and without knowledge of the pathogenesis of the disease, as well as biomechanical principles of composure, the effectiveness of treatment will be minimal.

To indications for the use of chining structures of any type include:

To analyze these parameters, X-ray data and other additional research methods are used. With the initial stage of the disease of the periodontal and the absence of pronounced lesions (dystrophy) of tissues, you can do without shining.

To positive shining effects Referring the following points:

1. The tire reduces the mobility of the teeth. The rigidity of the construction of the tire does not give tooths to break, and therefore reduces the likelihood of further increase in the amplitude of the oscillations of the teeth and their loss. Those. Teeth can only move as much as the tire allows.
2. The tire efficiency depends on the amount of teeth. The more teeth, the greater the effect of shining.
3. Shining redistributes the load on the teeth. The main load on chewing will be on healthy teeth. The teeth shameful will be less susceptible to them, which gives an additional effect for healing. The more healthy teeth be included in the shining, the more pronounced the unloading of movable teeth. Consequently, if most teeth are rolling, then the efficiency of the tire is reduced.
4. The best results gives the shining of front teeth (cutters and fangs), and those that combine the greatest amount of teeth will be the best tires. Consequently, in the perfect version of the tire should affect the entire dentition. The explanation is quite simple - from the point of view of stability, it is the arched design that will be better than linear.
5. Due to the lesser stability of the linear construction, the shining of movable indigenous teeth is produced symmetrically on both sides, combining them with a bridge connecting these two almost linear rows. This design significantly increases the shining effect. Others possible options Cuts are considered depending on the characteristics of the disease.

Permanent tires are installed not to all patients. The clinical picture of the disease is taken into account, the state of hygiene of the oral cavity, the presence of dental sediments, the bleeding of the gums, the severity of the dentive pockets, the severity of the mobility of the teeth, the nature of their offset, etc.

The absolute indication for the use of permanent concrete structures includes the pronounced teeth mobility in atrophy of the alveolar process no more than ¼ the length of the tooth root. With more pronounced changes, preliminary treatment of inflammatory changes in the oral cavity is initially carried out.

Setting a type of tire depends from the severity of atrophy of alveolar processes of jaws, The degree of teeth mobility, their location, etc. Thus, with pronounced mobility and atrophy of bone processes up to 1/3 of the height, fixed prostheses are recommended, in more severe cases it is possible to use removable and non-removed prostheses.

When determining the need for shining, the oral rehabilitation is of great importance: the treatment of teeth, treatment of inflammatory changes, dental removal and even removal of some teeth in the presence of strict readings. All this gives the maximum chances for successful treatment with disposal.

Failure tires in orthopedic dentistry

Tires in orthopedic dentistry are used to treat periodontal diseases, under which the pathological mobility of teeth is detected. The efficiency of shining, as well as any other treatment in medicine, depends on the stage of the disease, and therefore from the timing of the treatment of treatment. Tires reduce the load on the teeth, which reduces the inflammation of the periodontal, improves the healing and the overall health of the patient.

Tires must have the following properties:

Failures include the following types:

Ring tire.
It is a set of paved metal rings, which, putting on teeth, provide them with solid fixation. The design can have individual features technique and materials for manufacture. The quality of treatment depends on the accuracy of fitting. Therefore, the manufacture of the tire passes several stages: removal of writing, manufacture of plaster model, tire production and determination of the volume of toothache for reliable tire fixation.

Seawing tire.
The semiring tire differs from the annular absence of a complete ring from the outside of the dentition. This allows you to achieve greater aesthetic design while compliance with technology, similar to the creation of a ring bus.

Cap tire.
It is a series of swords of the caps that wear their teeth covering its cutting edge and the inner part (from the side of the tongue). Caps can be solid or manufactured from individual stamped crowns, which are then soldered with each other. The method is especially good in the presence of complete crowns, which is attached to the whole design.

Connecting tire.
The method resembles the previous one with the difference that the cap-cap has a protrusion that is installed in the deepening on the top of the tooth, which enhances its fixation and the entire tire design as a whole. Just as in the previous case, the tire is attached to complete crowns to impart maximum design stability.

Crown and semi-detection tire.
Full-day tire is used with good gum state, because The risk of its traumatization crown is great. Typically use metal-ceramic crowns with a maximum aesthetic effect. In the presence of atrophy of alveolar processes, the jaws put equatoric crowns that do not reach the gums and allow to carry out the treatment of a sewage pocket. The semi-detection tire is a solidized design or a raised half-leather (crowns only on the inside of the tooth). Such crowns possess the maximum aesthetic effect. But the tire requires virtuoso skill, because Prepare and attach such a tire is quite difficult. To reduce the likelihood of the half-opener detachment, the use of pins, which, as it were, "nourged" the crown to the tooth are recommended.

Interdental (interdental) tire.
The modern version of the tire according to the method is the connection of two neighboring teeth with special implanted inserts, which mutually reinforce the adjacent teeth. Various materials can be used, however, recently, preference is given to photopolymers, glassyonemonic cement, composite materials.

Treiman Tire, Waygel, Struit, Momlock, Kogan, Bruna And others. Some of these "registered" tires have already lost their relevance, some have been subjected to modernization.

Non-removable tires are a special variety of tires. They combine the solution of two tasks: treatment of periodontal diseases and prosthetics of missing teeth. In this case, the tire has a bridge construction, where the main chewing load accounts for the prosthetic itself on the site of the absent tooth, but on the supporting platforms of the neighboring teeth. Thus, the embodiments of shining with non-removable structures are quite a lot, which allows the doctor to choose a technique depending on the characteristics of the disease, the state of a particular patient of many other parameters.

Removable tires in orthopedic dentistry

The shining with removable structures can be used both in the presence of a whole tooth row and in the absence of some teeth. Removable tires usually reduce the mobility of teeth not in all directions, but to positive points include the absence of the need for grinding or other teeth treatment, the creation of good conditions for oral hygiene, as well as treatment.

When the dental rows are preserved, the following types of tires:

Tire Elbrecht.
The fusion of the carcass is elastic, but durable enough. This ensures protection against the mobility of the dentition in all directions, besides the vertical, i.e. Does not protect when chewing load. That is why such a tire is used in the initial stages of periodontal disease, when moderate chewing load does not lead to the progression of the disease. In addition, the Elbrecht bus is used in the presence of mobility of teeth I degree (minimum mobility). The tire can have the top (near the top of the tooth), the average or lower (roasting) location, and also the tire can be wide. The type of fastening and width of the tire depends on the specific situation, and therefore it is selected by the doctor individually for each patient. There is a possibility of accounting for the appearance of artificial teeth to change the structure.

Elbrecht tire with T-shaped clames In the field of the front teeth.
This design allows you to achieve additional fixation of the dental arc. However, this design is suitable only with minimal mobility of the teeth and the absence of pronounced inflammation of periodontal, because Such a design may cause additional injury to the periodontal in the presence of pronounced inflammatory changes.
Removable tire with cast kappa.
This is a modification of the Elbrecht bus, which allows to reduce the mobility of the incisors and fangs in the vertical (chewing) direction. Protection is provided by the presence of special caps in the field of front teeth, which reduce the chewing load on them.

Circular tire.
It can be ordinary or with cogtevoid processes. Used with unfinished teeth mobility, because A significant deviation of the teeth from its axis leads to difficulties when trying to wear or remove the prosthesis. With a significant deviation of the teeth from its axis, the use of collapsible structures is recommended.
In the absence of some teeth, removable prostheses can also be used.

Given the fact that the loss of the tooth can provoke periodontal diseases, it becomes necessary for the solution of two tasks: reimbursement of the lost tooth and the use of disposal as a means of preventing periodontal diseases. Each patient will have their own characteristics of the disease, therefore the features of the tire design will be strictly individual. Quite often allowed prosthetics with temporary disposal for the prevention of the development of periodontalism or other pathology. In any case, planning activities that contribute to the maximum medical effect of this patient are required. Thus, the choice of tire design depends on the number of missing teeth, degree of deformation of dental series, the presence and severity of periodontal diseases, age, pathology and type of bite, oral hygiene and many other parameters.

In general, in the absence of several teeth and severe periodontal pathology, preference is given to removable prosthesis. The design of the prosthesis is selected strictly individually and requires several visits to the doctor. Removable design requires careful planning and a certain sequence of actions:

Diagnosis and surveys of periodontal.
Preparation of the surface of the teeth and getting the casts for the future model
Studying Model and Tire Design Planning
Tire wax reproduction modeling
Obtaining a foundry and checking the accuracy of the frame on the plaster model
Checking tires (protein tires) in the oral cavity
Final finish (polishing) tires

Not all working steps are listed here, but even this list indicates the complexity of the procedure for manufacturing a removable tire (protein tires). The complexity of manufacture explains the need for several sessions of the patient and the duration of time from the first to last visits Doctor. But the result of all efforts is always alone - the restoration of anatomy and physiology, leading to the restoration of health and social rehabilitation.

Introduction Intim in summer, Intel made a strange: she managed to change as many as two generations of processors focused on commonly used personal computers. At first, the Haswell change cameras with the Broadwell microarchitecture, but then for literally a couple of months they have lost their new status and gave way to Skylake processors, which will remain the most progressive CPU at least one more years and a half. Such a period of generation changes occurred mainly due to Intel's problems arising from the introduction of a new 14-nm technical process, which is used in manufacturing and Broadwell, and Skylake. The productive carriers of the Broadwell microchitechitecture along the way to desktop systems were strongly detained, and their followers came out on a predetermined schedule, which led to the occurrence of the announcement of the Core-fifth generation processors and a serious reduction in their life cycle. As a result of all these perturbations, Broadwell's desktop segment took a completely narrow niche of economical processors with a powerful graphics core and are now content with a small level of sales inherent in high-specialized products. The attention of the advanced user has switched to Broadwell followers - Skylake processors.

It should be noted that in the past few years, Intel does not at all make up his fans with an increase in productivity of the products offered. Each new generation of processors adds only a few percent in the specific speed, which ultimately leads to the absence of explicit incentives to the modernization of old systems. But the Skylake-generation CPU output, along the way to which Intel, in fact, jumped over the step - inspired certain hopes that we would receive a really worthwhile update of the most common computing platform. However, nothing like that did not happen: Intel spoke in his usual repertoire. Broadwell was represented by the public as a certain branch from the main line of processors for desktop systems, and Skylake turned out to be faster than Haswell in most applications completely slightly.

Therefore, despite all the expectations, the appearance of Skylake on sale caused many skeptical attitude. After reviewing the results of real tests, many buyers simply have not seen real meaning in the transition to the Core processors of the sixth generation. And indeed, the main trump card of fresh CPUs is primarily a new platform with accelerated internal interfaces, but not a new processor microarchitecture. And this means that the real incentives for updating the solid generation systems of the last generations of Skylake offers a bit.

However, we would still not discharge from the transition of Skylake all without exception users. The fact is that let Intel be increasing the performance of its processors a very restrained pace, since the appearance of Sandy Bridge, which are still working in many systems, has changed already four generations of microarchitecture. Each step along the path of progress made its contribution to an increase in productivity, and today Skylake is able to offer a rather significant increase in productivity compared to their earlier predecessors. Only to see it, it should be compared with Haswell, but with earlier representatives of the Core family, which appeared before him.

Actually, this is precisely such comparison today and we will deal with. Considering everything said, we decided to see how the performance of Core i7 processors has grown since 2011, and collected in a single test Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell and Skylake in the Unified Dough, BRIDGE. Having received the results of such testing, we will try to understand what the owners of which processors it is advisable to start up the modernization of old systems, and which of them can time before the appearance of subsequent CPU generations. Along the way, we will look at the level of performance of new Core i7-5775C and Core I7-6700K generations and Skylake generations, which until now in our laboratory have not been tested.

Comparative CPU Features

From Sandy Bridge to Skylake: Comparison of specific performance

In order to recall how the specific performance of Intel processors has changed during the last five-year plan, we decided to start with a simple test, which compared the speed of Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell and Skylake, given to the same frequency 4 0 GHz. In this comparison, we used the Core i7 ruler processors, that is, four-siders who have Hyper-Threading technology.

As the main test tool, a comprehensive SYSMARK 2014 1.5 test was taken, which is good in that it reproduces typical user activity in general-consuming office applications, when creating and processing multimedia content and when solving computing tasks. The following graphs displays the results. For the convenience of perception, they are normalized, 100 percent adopted the performance of Sandy Bridge.

The SYSMARK 2014 1.5 integral indicator allows you to make the following observations. The transition from Sandy Bridge to Ivy Bridge increased specific performance quite slightly - about 3-4 percent. Further step towards Haswell turned out to be much more efficient, it resulted in a 12 percent improvement in productivity. And this is the maximum increase that can be observed in the graph. After all, then Broadwell overtakes Haswell only at 7 percent, and the transition from Broadwell to Skylake and increases the specific performance at all by only 1-2 percent. All the progress from Sandy Bridge to Skylake is poured into a 26 percent increase in productivity in constant clock frequencies.

More detailed decoding of the obtained indicators of SYSMARK 2014 1.5 can be viewed on the following three graphs, where the integral performance index is decomposed on the application type components.

Note, the most noticeable with the introduction of new versions of microarchitectures is added in the speed of execution multimedia applications. In them, the Skylake microarchitecture exceeds Sandy Bridge for as many as 33 percent. But in countable tasks, on the contrary, progress manifests itself the least. And moreover, with such a load, a step from Broadwell to Skylake even turns into a slight decrease in specific performance.

Now that we imagine what happened with the specific performance of Intel processors over the past few years, let's try to figure out what the observed changes were due.

From Sandy Bridge to Skylake: What has changed in Intel processors

Make a point of reference in comparison of various Core i7 representative of Sandy Bridge, we decided not just like that. It is this design that led a strong foundation for all further improvement of productive Intel processors up to today's Skylake. Thus, representatives of the Sandy Bridge family became the first high-integrated CPUs, in which the computing, and the graphics core, as well as the north bridge with the L3-cashem and the memory controller were collected in one semiconductor crystal. In addition, internal ring bus began to be used in them, by means of which the task of highly efficient interaction of all structural units constituting such a complex processor was solved. With this Sandy Bridge microarchitecture, the universal principles of construction continue to follow all the subsequent generations of the CPU without any serious adjustments.

Considerable changes in the Sandy Bridge underwent an internal microarchitecture of computing nuclei. It not only was implemented support for new sets of AES-NI and AVX teams, but also found the use of numerous major improvements in the depths of the execution conveyor. It was in Sandy Bridge a separate zero-level cache for decoded instructions was added; There is a completely new block of reordering commands based on the use of a physical register file; The branch prediction algorithms were noticeably improved; And besides, two of the three executive ports for working with data have become unified. Such heterogeneous reforms carried out at once at all stages of the conveyor made it possible to seriously increase the specific performance of the Sandy Bridge, which, compared to the processors of the previous generation, Nehalem immediately increased by almost 15 percent. This was added to this 15 percent growth of nominal clock frequencies and excellent acceleration potential, as a result of which a family of processors were in total, which is still put in example IntelAs an exemplary embodiment of the phase "so" in the development concept adopted in the company.

And the truth, similar to the mass and efficiency of improvements in the microarchitecture after Sandy Bridge, we have not seen. All subsequent generations of processor designs carry out less less large-scale improvements in computing nuclei. Perhaps this is a reflection of the lack of real competition in the processor market, perhaps the reason for the slowdown of progress lies in the Intel desire to focus on improving the graphic cores, and maybe Sandy Bridge simply turned out to be so successful that its further development requires too large labor costs.

Excellent illustrates the recession of innovation intensity transition from Sandy Bridge to Ivy Bridge. Despite the fact that the generation of processors next to the Sandy Bridge and was translated into a new production technology with 22-nm norms, its clock frequencies did not increase at all. The improvements made in design mainly touched upon the more flexible memory controller and the PCI Express bus controller, which received compatibility with the third version this standard. As for the microarchitecture of the computing nuclei directly, the individual cosmetic alterations allowed to achieve acceleration of the execution of division operations and a small increase in the efficiency of Hyper-Threading technology, and only. As a result, the growth of specific performance amounted to no more than 5 percent.

At the same time, the introduction of IVY BRIDGE brought and what the millionth army of overclockers is now bitterly regrets. Starting from the processors of this generation, Intel abandoned the conjugation of the semiconductor CPU crystal and the cover closing it through the Baulus solder and moved to filling the space between them with a polymer thermal interface material with very dubious thermal conducting properties. This artificially worsened the frequency potential and made the IVY Bridge processors, like all their followers, noticeably less accelerated compared to very vigorous in this plan by the "old men" Sandy Bridge.

However, Ivy Bridge is just a "tick", and therefore no one promised special breakthroughs in these processors. However, no inspiring productivity growth also brought the next generation, Haswell, which, unlike Ivy Bridge, is already the "so" phase. And it is actually a bit strange, since there are many different improvements in the Haswell microarchitecture, and they are dispersed at different parts of the executive conveyor, which in the amount could well be increased by the overall rate of execution of commands.

For example, in the input part of the conveyor, the effectiveness of transition prediction was improved, and the queue of decoded instructions began to share between parallel streams coexistent as part of Hyper-Threading technology, dynamically. In addition, an increase in the windows of the extraordinary execution of commands occurred, which should have lifted the share of the code parallel to the code. Directly in the executive unit added two additional functional ports aimed at processing integer commands, serving branching and saving data. Thanks to this, Haswell has become capable of processing up to eight micro-operations per tact - on a third more predecessors. Moreover, the new microarchitecture doubled the bandwidth of the first and second levels.

Thus, the improvements in the Haswell microarchitecture did not affect only the speed of the decoder, which seems to this moment He became the narrowest place in modern Core processors. After all, despite the impressive list of improvements, the increase in specific performance at Haswell compared to Ivy Bridge made up only about 5-10 percent. But justice should make a reservation that acceleration is noticeably much stronger on vector operations. And the greatest win can be seen in applications using new AVX2 and FMA commands, the support of which also appeared in this microarchitecture.

Haswell processors, like Ivy Bridge, first, also did not particularly like the enthusiasts. Especially if you consider the fact that in the original version of any increasing clock frequencies they did not offer. However, a year after his debut, Haswell began to seem noticeably attractive. First, the number of applications adding to the strongest parties to this architecture and using vector instructions. Secondly, Intel was able to correct the situation with frequencies. The later modifications of Haswell, who received their own code name Devil's Canyon, were able to increase the advantage over the predecessors due to the increase in the clock frequency, which finally broke through the 4-gigahertz ceiling. In addition, going on with overclockers, Intel has improved the polymer thermal interface under the processor lid, which made Devil's Canyon with more suitable overclocking objects. Of course, there are no compatible pieces like Sandy Bridge, but nevertheless.

And here with such baggage Intel approached Broadwell. Since basic key feature These processors were to be a new production technology with 14-nm standards, no significant innovations in their microarchitecture were planned - it was supposed to be almost the most banal "tick". Everything necessary for the success of new products could well provide only a subtle technical process with second-generation finfet transistors, in the theory allowing to reduce power consumption and raise frequencies. However, the practical implementation of the new technology turned out a series of failures, as a result of which Broadwell got only economy, but not high frequencies. As a result, those generation processors that Intel presented for desktop systems came out more like mobile CPUs than on Devil's Canyon business continuents. Moreover, in addition to the trimmed thermal packets and frequencies, they differ from predecessors and decreased in the L3-cashem volume, which, however, is somewhat compensated by the appearance of the fourth-level cache located on a separate crystal.

On the same with Haswell frequency, the Broadwell processors demonstrate an approximately 7 percent advantage provided to the addition of an additional level of data caching and the next improvement of the branch prediction algorithm along with an increase in the main internal buffers. In addition, Broadwell implements new and faster schemes for performing multiplication and division instructions. However, all these small improvements are crossped fiasco with clock frequenciesbelonging to us in the era to Sandy Bridge. For example, the senior overclocker Core i7-5775C generation Broadwell is inferior in the frequency of Core i7-4790K as many as 700 MHz. It is clear that it is pointless to expect any productivity in this background, if only it cost without her serious fall.

In many ways, precisely because of this, Broadwell and turned out to be unattractive for the bulk of users. Yes, processors of this family are distinguished by high economy and even fit into a thermal package with a 65-watt framework, but who is it, by and large, cares? The accelerated potential of the first generation 14-nm CPU turned out to be quite restrained. About any work at frequencies approaching the 5-Gigahertz plank is not a speech. The maximum that can be achieved from Broadwell when using air cooling runs in the vicinity of 4.2 GHz. In other words, the fifth generation of Core came out at Intel, at least, weird. What, by the way, the microprocessor giant in the end and regretted: representatives of Intel noted that the late release of Broadwell for desktop computers, its abbreviated life cycle and atypical characteristics have adversely affected at the level of sales, and more the company does not plan for such experiments plans.

The newest Skylake on this background is presented not so much as the further development of the Intel microarchitecture, how much is a kind of work on errors. Despite the fact that in the production of this generation, the CPU uses the same 14-nm technical process, as in the case of Broadwell, there are no problems with the work at high frequencies at Skylake. The nominal frequencies of the sixth generation Core processors returned to those indicators that were characteristic of their 22-nm precursors, and the overclocking potential even increased slightly. On the hand overclockers here played the fact that in Skylake the processor power converter reinpected on motherboard And thereby reduced the total heat dissipation of the CPU during acceleration. It is a pity that Intel never returned to the use of an effective thermal interface between a crystal and a processor lid.

But as for the basic microarchitecture of computing nuclei, despite the fact that Skylake, like Haswell, is the embodiment of the "so" phase, innovations in it quite a bit. Moreover, most of them are aimed at expanding the input part of the executive conveyor, the remaining parts of the conveyor remained without any significant changes. Changes relate to improving the effectiveness of branching prediction and increase the efficiency of the preliminary sampling unit, and only. In this case, part of optimization is not so much to improve productivity, as is aimed at the next increase in energy efficiency. Therefore, surprise that Skylake is almost no different from Broadwell in its specific performance, should not.

However, there are exceptions: in some cases, Skylakes can exceed the precursors in performance and more noticeable. The fact is that in this microarchitecture, the memory subsystem was improved. The intra-processor ring bus has become faster, and this ultimately expanded the L3-cache bandwidth. Plus, the memory controller has been supported by the high-frequency memory frequencies of the DDR4 SDRAM standard.

But in the end, nevertheless it turns out that there would be no Intel talking about the progressiveness of Skylake, from the point of view of ordinary users it is a fairly weak update. The main improvements in Skylake are made in the graphics core and in energy efficiency, which opens up the path to the ignition system of the tablet form factor before such a CPU. The desktop representatives of this generation differ from the same Haswell is not too noticeable. Even if you close your eyes to the existence of Broadwell intermediate generation, and to match Skylake directly with Haswell, the observed growth of specific performance will be about 7-8 percent, which can hardly be called an impressive manifestation of technical progress.

It is worth noting that it does not justify the expectations and improvement of technological production processes. In the way from Sandy Bridge Do Skylake, Intel changed two semiconductor technology and reduced the thickness of transistor shutters more than twice. However, the modern 14-nm technical process compared with the 32-nm technology of five years ago did not allow to increase processor operating frequencies. All Core processors of the last five generations have very similar clock frequencies, which if exceed a 4-gighertz mark, it is completely insignificant.

For a visual illustration of this fact, you can look at the following chart, which displays the clock frequency of the senior overclocking processors Core I7 of different generations.

Moreover, the peak of the clock frequency is not even on Skylake. The maximum frequency can boast Haswell processors related to the DEVIL'S Canyon subgroup. Their nominal frequency is 4.0 GHz, but due to the turbo regime in real conditions they are able to accelerate to 4.4 GHz. For the modern Skylake, the frequency maximum is just 4.2 GHz.

All this, naturally, affects the final performance of real representatives of various CPU families. And then we offer to see how all this is reflected in the speed of platforms built on the basis of the flagship processors of each of the families of Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell and Skylake.

As we tested

Compared five Core i7 processors of different generations: Core i7-2700k, Core i7-3770k, Core i7-4790k, Core i7-5775c and Core i7-6700K. Therefore, the list of components involved in testing turned out to be quite extensive:

Processors:

Intel Core I7-2600K (Sandy Bridge, 4 cores + HT, 3.4-3.8 GHz, 8 MB L3);
Intel Core i7-3770K (Ivy Bridge, 4 kernels + HT, 3.5-3.9 GHz, 8 MB L3);
Intel Core i7-4790K (Haswell Refresh, 4 cores + HT, 4.0-4.4 GHz, 8 MB L3);
Intel Core i7-5775C (Broadwell, 4 kernels, 3.3-3.7 GHz, 6 MB L3, 128 MB L4).
Intel Core i7-6700K (Skylake, 4 kernels, 4.0-4.2 GHz, 8 MB L3).

Processor cooler: NOCTUA NH-U14S.
Motherboards:

ASUS Z170 Pro Gaming (LGA 1151, Intel Z170);
ASUS Z97-PRO (LGA 1150, Intel Z97);
ASUS P8Z77-V DELUXE (LGA1155, Intel Z77).

Memory:

2x8 GB DDR3-2133 SDRAM, 9-11-11-31 (G.SKILL F3-2133C9D-16GTX);
2x8 GB DDR4-2666 SDRAM, 15-15-15-35 (Corsair Vengeance LPX CMK16GX4M2A2666C16R).

Video card: NVIDIA GeForce GTX 980 Ti (6 GB / 384 BIT GDDR5, 1000-1076 / 7010 MHz).
Disk subsystem: Kingston Hyperx Savage. 480 GB (SHSS37A / 480G).
Power supply: Corsair RM850i \u200b\u200b(80 Plus Gold, 850 W).

Testing was performed in the Microsoft Windows 10 Enterprise BUILD 10240 operating system using the following driver set:

Intel Chipset Driver 10.1.1.8;
Intel Management Engine Interface Driver 11.0.0.1157;
NVIDIA GeForce 358.50 Driver.

Performance

Total performance

To estimate the performance of processors in common tasks, we traditionally use the BAPCO SYSMARK test package that simulates the user's work in real common modern office programs and applications for creating and processing digital content. The test idea is very simple: it gives the only metric characterizing the weighted average speed of the computer during everyday use. After exit operating system Windows 10 this benchmark has once again updated, and now we use the most last version - SYSMARK 2014 1.5.

When comparing Core i7 of different generations, when they work in their nominal modes, the results are not at all such as when comparing on a single clock frequency. Still, the actual frequency and features of the turbo-mode work has a rather significant effect on performance. For example, according to the data obtained, the Core i7-6700K is faster than Core i7-5775C for as many as 11 percent, but its advantage over Core i7-4790K is completely slightly - it is only about 3 percent. At the same time, it is impossible to go around the attention and the fact that the newest Skylake is significantly faster than Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge generation processors. Its advantage over Core i7-2700K and Core i7-3770K reaches 33 and 28 percent, respectively.

A deeper understanding of the results of SYSMARK 2014 1.5 is able to give acquaintance with productivity estimates obtained in various system use scenarios. Office Productivity Scenario Models Typical Office Work: Text Preparation, E-table processing, work with email and visiting Internet sites. The script will use the following set of applications: Adobe Acrobat XI Pro, Google Chrome. 32, Microsoft Excel 2013, Microsoft OneNote 2013, Microsoft Outlook 2013, Microsoft PowerPoint 2013, Microsoft Word 2013, Winzip Pro 17.5 Pro.

In the MEDIA CREATION scenario, the creation of a commercial using pre-filtered digital images and video. Popular packages apply for this purpose. Adobe Photoshop. CS6 Extended, Adobe Premiere pro. CS6 and Trimble Sketchup Pro 2013.

The Data / Financial Analysis scenario is devoted to statistical analysis and investment forecasting based on a certain financial model. The script uses large volumes of numerical data and two Microsoft Excel 2013 and WinZip Pro 17.5 Pro applications.

The results obtained by us under various load scenarios, qualitatively repeat the general indicators of SYSMARK 2014 1.5. Attention only the fact that the Core i7-4790K processor does not look outdated at all. It markedly loses the latest Core i7-6700K only in the DATA / FINANCIAL ANALYSIS scenario, and in other cases or is inferior to its follower on a very low-profitable value, or it turns out to be faster. For example, the representative of the Haswell family is ahead of the new Skylake in office applications. But processors of older releases, Core i7-2700K and Core I7-3770K, look already a few outdated offers. They lose the novelty in different types Tasks from 25 to 40 percent, and this is perhaps a sufficient basis that Core i7-6700K can be considered as a decent substitution.

Game performance

As you know, the performance of platforms equipped with high-performance processors in the overwhelming majority of modern games is determined by the capacity of the graphic subsystem. That is why when testing processors, we choose the most processor-dependent game, and we perform the measurement of the number of frames twice. The first passing tests are carried out without inclusion of smoothing and installing far from the highest permissions. Such settings allow us to evaluate how well the processors with gaming load are displayed in principle, which means that it makes it possible to build guesses about how tested computing platforms will behave in the future, when faster options for graphic accelerators appear on the market. The second pass is performed with realistic installations - when you select FullHD permission and the maximum level of full-screen smoothing. In our opinion, such results are no less interesting, as they respond to a frequently asked question of which level of game performance can provide processors right now - in modern conditions.

However, in this test, we collected a powerful graphics subsystem based on the flagship video card NVIDIA GeForce GTX 980 Ti. And as a result, in terms of games, the frame rate demonstrated the dependence on processor performance even in FullHD resolution.

Results in FullHD resolution with maximum quality settings

Typically, the influence of processors on gaming performance, especially if we are talking about the powerful representatives of the Core I7 series, it turns out insignificant. However, when comparing five Core i7 of different generations, results are not at all homogeneous. Even when installing the maximum quality settings, the Core i7-6700K and Core i7-5775C graphics and Core i7-5775C are demonstrated by the highest gaming performance, while older Core i7 are lagging behind them. Thus, the frame rate that was obtained in the system with Core i7-6700k exceeds the system performance based on Core i7-4770K to a small one percent, but the Core i7-2700K and Core I7-3770K processors seem to have a significantly worse geniimer system. The transition from Core i7-2700K or Core i7-3770K to the newest Core i7-6700K gives an increase in the FPS of a value of 5-7 percent, which is capable of providing a very noticeable impact on the quality of the gameplay.

You can see all this much more clearly in the event that the processor game performance is available when the image rate is reduced when the frame rate does not rest in the power of the graphic subsystem.

Results with reduced resolution

The newest Core i7-6700K processor is again able to show the highest performance among all the latest generations. Its superiority over Core i7-5775C is about 5 percent, and over Core i7-4690k is about 10 percent. There is nothing strange in this: the games are quite sensitive to the speed of the memory subsystem, namely, in this direction, serious improvements were made in Skylake. But much more noticeable superiority of Core i7-6700K over Core i7-2700K and Core i7-3770K. Senior Sandy Bridge lags behind a novelty for 30-35 percent, and Ivy Bridge loses to it in the area of \u200b\u200b20-30 percent. In other words, no matter how the Intel swore for too slow improvement of their own processors, the company was able to increase the speed of its CPU over the past five years, and this is a very tangible result.

Testing in real games Complete the results of the popular synthetic benchmark Futuremark 3DMark.

Second game indicators and those results that gives Futuremark 3DMark. When translating the microarchitecture of Core i7 C processors with Sandy Bridge on Ivy Bridge, 3DMark indicators rose by a value from 2 to 7 percent. The implementation of the Haswell design and the release of DEVIL'S Canyon processors added to the performance of the older Core i7 additional 7-14 percent. However, then the appearance of Core i7-5775c, which has a relatively low clock frequency, slightly killed the speed back. And the newest Core i7-6700K, in fact, had to be fading at once in two generations of microarchitecture. The increase in the final rating of 3DMark at the new processor of the Skylake family compared to Core i7-4790k amounted to up to 7 percent. And in fact it is not so much: Still, the most noticeable improvement in productivity over the past five years was able to bring Haswell processors. The latest generations of desktop processors are really somewhat disappointed.

Tests in applications

In Autodesk 3DS MAX 2016 we test the speed of the final rendering. Measured time spent on rendering in 1920x1080 resolution with rendering mental Ray. One frame standard Hummer scene.

Another test final rendering is carried out by us using a popular free building package. three-dimensional graphics Blender 2.75A. In it, we measure the duration of the construction of the final model from Blender Cycles Benchmark Rev4.

To measure the speed of photorealistic three-dimensional rendering, we used the Cinebench R15 test. Maxon recently updated his benchmark, and now it again allows you to estimate the speed of the various platforms when rendering in topical versions of the Cinema 4D animation package.

Performance when working websites and Internet applications built using modern technologies, we are measured in a new browser Microsoft Edge. 20.10240.16384.0. This uses a specialized WebXPRT 2015 test that implements HTML5 and JavaScript actually used in the Internet applications of the algorithms.

Testing performance when processing graphic images It happens in Adobe Photoshop CC 2015. The average execution time of the test script is measured, which is a creative recycled Retouch Artists Photoshop Speed \u200b\u200bTest, which includes typical processing of four 24 megapixel images made by a digital camera.

According to numerous requests of photographers, we conducted performance testing in Adobe Photoshop Lightroom 6.1 graphics program. The test script includes post-processing and exports to JPEG with a resolution of 1920x1080 and the maximum quality of two hundred 12 megapixel images in the RAW format made by the Nikon D300 digital camera.

Performance is tested in Adobe Premiere Pro CC 2015 with a non-linear video edge. The rendering time is measured in the H.264 Blu-Ray format of the project containing HDV 1080P25 video sequence with the imposition of various effects.

To measure the speed of processors when compressing information, we use archiver winrar. 5.3, with which with the maximum compression degree, archive the folder with various files The total volume of 1.7 GB.

To estimate the video recoding speed to H.264 format uses the X264 FHD Benchmark 1.0.1 test (64bit), based on measuring coding time coder X264 source video to MPEG-4 / AVC format with permission [Email Protected] and default settings. It should be noted that the results of this benchmark are of great practical importance, since the Code X264 underlies the numerous popular recoding utilities, such as Handbrake, Megui, VirtualDub, and so on. We periodically update the coder used to measure performance, and in this testing was attended by version R2538, which implements support for all modern sets of instructions, including AVX2.

In addition, we added to the test applications and the new Code X265, designed to transcribe video into a promising H.265 / HEVC format, which is a logical continuation of H.264 and is characterized by more efficient compression algorithms. The source is used to evaluate performance [Email Protected] Y4M video file, which is recoded to H.265 format with Medium profile. This testing was attended by the release of the Codeter version 1.7.

The advantage of Core i7-6700K over the early predecessors in various applications is not subject to doubt. However, two types of tasks won the most of the evolution that occurred. Firstly, related to the processing of multimedia content, whether video or images. Secondly, final rendering in three-dimensional modeling and design packages. In general, in such cases Core i7-6700K exceeds the Core i7-2700K at least 40-50 percent. And sometimes you can observe and much more impressive improvement in speed. So, when crossing the video codec X265, the newest Core i7-6700K gives exactly twice as high performance than the older Core i7-2700K.

If we talk about the increase in the speed of the resource-intensive tasks, which can provide Core i7-6700K compared to Core i7-4790K, then such impressive illustrations for the results of the work of Intel engineers can not be brought. The maximum advantage of the novelty is observed in Lightroom, here Skylake turned out to be better one and a half times. But it is rather - an exception to the rule. Most of the Core i7-6700K multimedia tasks compared to Core i7-4790K offers only a 10 percent performance improvement. And when you load a different nature, the difference in speed and is less or there is no less.

Separately, you need to say a few words and on the result shown by Core i7-5775c. Due to the small clock frequency, this processor is slower than Core i7-4790k and Core i7-6700K. But do not forget that its key characteristic is economy. And it is quite capable of becoming one of the best options from the point of view of specific performance for each watt of electricity spent. In this we are easy to make sure the next section.

Energy consumption

Skylake processors are manufactured according to the modern 14-nm technological process with three-dimensional second-generation transistors, however, despite this, their thermal package rose to 91 watts. In other words, the new CPU is not only "hot" 65-watts Broadwell, but also exceed by the calculated heat release of Haswell, manufactured by 22-nm technology and caring in the framework of the 88-watt thermal package. The reason obviously is that initially the Skylake architecture was optimized with an eye not at high frequencies, but on energy efficiency and the possibility of using in mobile devices. Therefore, in order for the desktop skylake to receive acceptable clock frequencies lying in the surrounding area of \u200b\u200bthe 4-gigahertz mark, the supply voltage had to do, which inevitably affected the power consumption and heat dissipation.

However, the Broadwell processors did not differ in low operating stresses, so there is hope that the 91-watt thermal package Skylake received for some formal circumstances and, in fact, they will not be voracious precursors. Check!

We used in the test system a new digital power supply unit Corsair RM850i \u200b\u200ballows you to monitor consumed and issued electrical power than we use for measurements. The following graph, the graph is given a complete consumption of systems (without a monitor), measured "after" the power supply and representing the amount of energy consumption of all components involved in the system. The efficiency of the power supply itself is not taken into account in this case. To correct energy consumption assessment, we activated the turbo and all existing energy-saving technologies.

In a state of downtime, a high-quality leap in the cost-effectiveness of desktop platforms occurred with the release of Broadwell. Core i7-5775c and Core i7-6700K are distinguished noticeably lower consumption in simple.

But under load in the form of video transcoding the most economical CPU variants are Core i7-5775c and Core i7-3770K. The newest Core i7-6700K consumes more. Its energy appetites are at the level of Sandy Bridge. True, in a novelty, unlike Sandy Bridge, there is support for AVX2 instructions that require sufficiently serious energy costs.

The following diagram shows the maximum consumption with the load created by the 64-bit version of the LINX 0.6.5 utility with support for the AVX2 instruction set, which is based on the LINPACK package, which differs exorbitant energy appetites.

And again, the Broadwell generation processor shows the wonders of energy efficiency. However, if you look at how much electricity consumes Core i7-6700k, it becomes clear that the progress in microarchitets bypassed the energy efficiency of desktop CPUs. Yes, in the mobile segment with the yield of Skylake there were new proposals with an extremely seductive ratio of productivity and energy consumption, however, the newest processors for desktops continue to consume about the same amount as their predecessors consumed five years before today.

conclusions

After testing the newest Core i7-6700K and comparing it with several generations of previous CPUs, we again come to the disappointing conclusion that Intel continues to follow its unknown principles and does not seek to increase the speed of desktop processors oriented to high-performance systems. And if, compared with the senior Broadwell, a novelty offers about 15 percent improvement in performance due to significantly better clock frequencies, then in comparison with an older, but more quick Haswell it no longer seems as progressive. Difference in core performance I7-6700K and Core i7-4790K, despite the fact that these processors share two generations of microarchitecture, does not exceed 5-10 percent. And this is very little in order for the senior desktop Skylake to be unambiguously recommended to update the available LGA 1150 systems.

However, to such insignificant steps intel in increasing the speed of the processors for desktop systems it would be worth it for a long time. The increase in the performance of new solutions lying around in such limits - the long-established tradition. No revolutionary changes in the computational performance of Intel CPUs, focused on desktop PCs, no longer happened. And the reasons for this are quite understandable: the company's engineers are engaged in optimizing the microarchitectures developed for mobile applications and first of all think about energy efficiency. Intel's successes in the adaptation of their own architectures for use in thin and light devices are undoubted, but the adepts of classic desktops are just and remains that they can be content with a small speed of speed, which, fortunately, has not yet completely descended.

However, this does not mean that Core i7-6700K can be recommended only for new systems. At the modernization of its computers, the owners of configurations are based on the LGA 1155 platform with the Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge and Ivy Bridge. In comparison with Core i7-2700k and Core i7-3770K, the new Core i7-6700k looks very good - its weighted average superiority over the predecessors is estimated at 30-40 percent. In addition, processors with microarchitecture Skylake can boast support to the AVX2 instruction set, which has now found a fairly wide application in multimedia applications, and due to this, in some cases the Core i7-6700K is much stronger. So, when crossing the video, we even saw cases when Core i7-6700K exceeded the Core i7-2700K in the speed of operation more than twice!

There is u sKYLAKE processors and whole line other advantages related to the implementation of the accompanying new platform LGA 1151. And the matter is not even so much in the support of DDR4 memory that appears in it, how long the new sets of the logic of the cell of the series finally got a really high-speed connection with the processor and support for a large number of PCI Express 3.0 lines. As a result, advanced LGA 1151 systems can boast the presence of numerous fast interfaces to connect drives and external devices that are deprived of any artificial bandwidth restrictions.

Plus, appreciating the prospects for the LGA 1151 platform and Skylake processors, in mind you need to have another moment. Intel will not hurry with the next generation processor market, known as Kaby Lake. If you believe the available information, representatives of this series of processors in options for desktop computers will appear on the market only in 2017. So Skylake will be with us for a long time, and the system built on it will be able to remain relevant for a very long period of time.

Term topology network means a way to connect computers to the network. You can also hear other names - network Structure or network configuration (This is the same). In addition, the concept of topology includes many rules that determine the placement of computers, the cable laying methods, methods for placing the binder equipment and much more. To date, several main topologies have been formed and established. From them can be noted " tire”, “ring"And" star.”.

Topology "Tire"

Topology tire (or, how else is often called total tire or highway ) It assumes the use of one cable to which all workstations are connected. The shared cable is used by all stations in turn. All messages sent by individual workstations are accepted and listened to all other computers connected to the network. From this stream, each workstation selects only messages addressed to it.

Advantages of the topology "tire":

• simplicity settings;
• relative ease of installation and low cost, if all workstations are located nearby;
• the failure of one or several workstations does not affect the operation of the entire network.

Disadvantages of the Top Topology:

• tire problems anywhere (cable breaking, the failure of the network connector) leads to non-working network;
• the complexity of troubleshooting;
• low performance - at each time only one computer can transmit data to the network, with an increase in the number of workstations network performance drops;
• bad scalability - To add new workstations, it is necessary to replace the sections of the existing bus.

It is on the topology "tire" built local networks on coaxial cable. In this case, the segments of the coaxial cable were protruded as a tire, connected by T-connectors. The tire was laid through all the rooms and approached each computer. The side output of the T confitor was inserted into the connector on the network card. That's what it looked: Now such networks are hopelessly outdated and everywhere replaced by the "star" on the twisted pair, but the equipment under coaxial cable You can still see in some enterprises.

Topology "Ring"

Ring - This is the topology of the local network, in which the workstations are connected in succession to each other, forming a closed ring. Data is transmitted from one workstation to another in one direction (in a circle). Each PC works as a repeater, relaying messages to the next PC, i.e. The data is transmitted from one computer to another as if on the relay. If the computer receives data intended for another computer - it transmits them further along the ring, otherwise they are not transmitted further.

The advantages of the ring topology:

• easy installation;
• almost complete absence of additional equipment;
• the possibility of sustainable work without a significant drop in the data transfer rate with intensive network load.

However, the "ring" has significant disadvantages:

• each workstation should actively participate in sending information; In case of failure, at least one of them or a cable break - the work of the entire network stops;
• connecting a new workstation requires a short-term network shutdown, because during the installation of the new PC, the ring must be open;
• the complexity of configuration and configuration;
• the difficulty of finding faults.

Ring network topology is quite rare. The main use she found in fiber optic networks Standard Token Ring.

Topology "Star"

Star - This is a local network topology, where each workstation is attached to the central device (switch or router). The central device controls the movement of packets on the network. Each computer through network card Connects to the switch with a separate cable. If necessary, you can combine several networks with the "Star" topology - as a result you will receive a network configuration with tree topology. The tree topology is distributed in large companies. We will not consider it in detail in this article.

The topology "Star" today has become the main in the construction of local networks. This happened due to its numerous advantages:

• the failure of one workstation or damage to its cable is not reflected in the work of the entire network as a whole;
• excellent scalability: To connect a new workstation, a separate cable from the switcher is sufficient;
• easy troubleshooting and cliffs in the network;
• high performance;
• easy setup and administration;
• additional equipment is easily embedded in the network.

However, like any topology, the "star" is not devastable:

• the failure of the central switch will result in the inoperability of the entire network;
• additional network equipment costs - a device to which all network computers will be connected (switch);
• the number of workstations is limited by the number of ports in the central switcher.

Star - the most common topology for wired and wireless networks. An example of star-shaped topology is a network with type cable twisted para, and the switch as a central device. Such such networks are found in most organizations.

The image of the 28-nuclear crystal of the SkyLake-Sp processor. Then we noticed that the location of the kernels and interfaces has undergone significant changes. Yesterday, Intel was explained at one of the home events, with which these changes are connected in design. As it turned out, in the future, Intel refuses (and has already refused for Skylake processors in Xeon versions and the desktop solutions of higher performance) from the intra-processor ring tire.

Ring Bus (Ring Bus) was presented in 2008 along with the NEHALEM architecture and Westmere-EX processors. It was necessary due to the increase in the number of nuclei on the crystal. Intel's developers used three design options for processors (depending on the maximum number of nuclei on the crystal) with three variants of the ring bus. In the most difficult case, the processor inside was divided into two clusters, each of which was served by two annular tires. Between the tires were connected to bidirectional buffering switches (on the diagram above marked with gray).

As the number of cores grows, the annular tire has become an obstacle to increasing bandwidth and reduce delays. More precisely, it has become too much to consume that it can be scaled towards an increase in the data exchange rate. Therefore, in the SkyLake-SP processors, the Intel developers decided to apply a different structure to communicate with each other - well-tested in the architecture of Intel Xeon Phi (Knights Landing) with a cellular network.

Each kernel in the new architecture has its own buffer switch and is associated with any other core in the processor only through two nodes - the outgoing and incoming. This allows the cellular bus to work on relatively small frequencies and significantly reduce the overall intake of the interface without deterioration in the bandwidth and increase delays. In addition, such a structure of communications is very well scaled, allowing Intel in the future to increase the number of nuclei on the crystal without a noticeable increase in the energy costs for internal data transportation.

Explaining the essence of the new inner tire, as well as the appearance of an image of a 18-nuclear processor with a new design, also allows you to make sure that new processors really carry an integrated 6-channel memory controller, which is now spaced along the edge on the side of the crystal just above the middle.

Failure tires

Ring tire.It consists of spotted rings covering teeth from the vestibular side in the form of a strip, and is located in the occlusal part of the crown closer to the cutting edge (Fig. 26). From the paternal side, the ring expands and overlaps the dental tubercle. Rings, as a rule, are prepared from stamped crowns, but a solid design can be an option for such a tire. In the preparation of the teeth, interdental contact points on the thickness of the stamped crown to the lower edge of the ring are polished. For this, it is pre-on the diagnostic model with a chemical pencil, the boundaries of the rings, which subsequently serve as a reference with the preparation of teeth. Separation of contact surfaces facing each other is carried out on the thickness of two rings. The cutting edge is left open and this circumstance requires special care in determining the indications for the use of this tire. The pronounced vertical mobility of teeth, not closed from the cutting edge, may be the cause of cement resorption and tire fixation disorders. In addition, with a sharply expressed anatomical form of the lower front incisors, it takes a polishing of a rather significant layer of solid tissues from the contact surfaces to the lower edge of the ring, which makes it difficult to restore the contact surfaces on the stamped rings and reduces the accuracy of the rings to the surface of the tooth. It may also cause the resorption of the fixing cement and the development of caries.

Tire technology is as follows. In the first visit after a thorough examination and compilation of the dispute plan, it is necessary to remove the impression of alginate mass for the manufacture of diagnostic gypsum models. The parallelometer is determined by the topography of the center line, the models are fixed in the articulator and apply a pattern of the ring bus. On the same model there is a phantom preparation of tight teeth. The next visit to anesthesia displays teeth, strictly observing the boundaries of the phantom preparation. For the manufacture of the rings again remove the impression with the help of alginate mass. Removing the doublettage in patients with periodontal diseases may be difficult due to the mobility of individual teeth and the dangers of their removal. On the resulting prints, gypsum working models are cast, which are used to make stamped blanks of future rings. The resulting stamped crowns are used for the manufacture of rings that are checked in the oral cavity of the patient and if they meet the requirements with them remove the impression to translate the rings on the gypsum model. Before removing the impression, the contact surfaces of the rings facing each other are cleaned from the scale for the subsequent spike of the rings on the gypsum model without the preliminary removal, which ensures the accuracy of their mutual location in the manufacture of the tire. The finished tire after the spike rings is bleaching, polished and fixed in the oral cavity with special cement.

The disadvantages of the ring tire include: 1 - disruption of aesthetics of natural teeth, part of which is closed with a metal ring; 2 - the presence of solder often leads to its oxidation and a change in color in the form of darkening, especially often this is observed in patients with increased acidity of gastric juice; 3 - the absence of a pinning effect during vertical load; 4 - Tire requires the use of cements, very resistant to the effects of the oral fluid (if this condition is not respected, the danger of dental damage to the caries and tire fixation) occurs.

Fig. 26. Ring tire: A - view from the lip side; b - view from the paternal side; in - general view of the ring; G - Tooth Preparation Scheme: The dotted line indicates the edge of the rings; The left is shown to excessive removal of solid tissues from the contact surface; On the right - the correct preparation, when the rings protruding over the lower boundary of the rings removed exactly to the designated dotted line; D, E - Crawling Borders (front view and top)

Seawing tire.Constructively tire is built on the same principle as the ring. However, in order to increase the aesthetic properties of the tire, the middle part of the rings from the lip side is removed and, thus, the vestibular surface of the tooth in its middle part is released from the metal (Fig. 27). Thus, there remain short shoulders in the form of ribbon climers, covering their teeth completely from the paternal side and partly with the vestibule. The best busting effect is achieved when the complete reference crowns covering the extreme teeth - fangs are turned on into the tire. From a technological point of view, the tire is most practical in the manufacture of a solid structure, since the stamped semirings do not have the hardness needed to be reduced. In addition, currently there is an opportunity to cover cast semiring with decorative material - ceramics, which makes the tire very beneficial in aesthetic

Fig. 27. Semicolves Schip: A - view from the vestibular side; b - view from the paternal side

Cap tire.The system of paved caps covering the cutting edge, the contact surfaces of the tooth, and on the gear surface of the dental tuberca, is denoted as a cap tire (Fig. 28). The preparation edge and contact surfaces on the cap thickness are subjected. From the lip side, the edge of the cap can be located on top of the solid tooth tissues or end on a specially formed ledge. The second option is preferable, since the edge of the cap turns out to be lying on the same level with solid tissues adjacent to it, that is, flush. In the first version, the edge of the cap is often felt by patients, can injure the surrounding rolling mucous membrane of the oral cavity and requires the creation of a fold when moving the edge of the cap into solid tooth tissues. Caps can be manufactured in two ways: 1) from stamped crowns, 2) solid. The second option is considered more perfect because the accuracy of the entire pinning structure increases, which means that its shining effect increases, and, in addition, it becomes possible to favay the litter design with ceramics. For better stability, the bus is combined with complete crowns (metallometallic or metal-meal), covering the extreme most stable teeth - fangs or premolars. The sequence of manufacture is the same as when making a ring bus.

Fig. 28. Cap tire: A - view from the lip side; b - view from the paternal side; in - layer of removed solid tissues under the cap; g - stamped cap; d - preparation under the cast cap; C - Cast Cap Construction Cutting Cutting Edge

Tires used on vital teeth have one major advantage - the vitality of the pulp remains, which means there are no conditions for changing reactivity in periodontal tissues. However, it is often due to the proximity of the pulp, especially when erasing part of the cutting and chewing surfaces of the teeth, the use of a complex tire design that requires the formation of deep cavities, requires preliminary deputation of teeth. Of course, in the presence of depositated teeth, the manufacture of tires is much easier. Below we will look at such structures that are used on dsvitalizable teeth.

When using fixed tire designs, it is necessary to strictly follow the rules for placing the edge of the tires located near the desiye edge. The latter should not be injured with a tire. To this end, the edge of the crown should be minimally immersed in the gum-groove groove, and to prevent the possible pressure on the gum to apply the preparation method of teeth with a ledge almost at the level with it. Racking attitude towards patient periodontal when applying non-removable tires has a beneficial effect on the course of periodontal disease and is not an obstacle to conservative and surgical therapy. In addition, it is important in terms of preventing the injury of the desiye region is the method of obtaining implications. We consider the most optimal in this case to remove the prints for the manufacture of pin-structures with the most elastic alginate materials, allowing movable teeth to avoid random dental removal along with prints. The recommendations encountered in the special literature to shoot two-layer prints using silicone print materials, even with preliminary concrete, as shown observations are not acceptable, since the removal of two-layer impulsions may cause the removal of movable teeth.

Removable tires

In the question of the ways of sowing teeth there are different points of view. Some authors consider justified the preferential use of non-removable tires, while others, on the contrary, give the previously removable tires and the covered designs of removable prostheses. Moreover, the shining with removable structures can be used both with intact dental rows and in partial loss of teeth.

If necessary, replacing remote teeth with artificial restoration of the removable tire can be carried out without replacing the entire design.

Removable tires provide reliable stabilization primarily in the vestibulo-oral and mesio-distal direction. At the same time, the need for radical disubstation disintegration is eliminated, good conditions for hygienic care and medical surgical treatment are created both in the preparatory period and in the process of using the removable pinning structure.

With orthopedic treatment of periodontal diseases using removable tires, it is advisable to highlight two groups of patients:

with intact dental rows; Partial loss of teeth.

Removable Elbrecht bus.The tire is used for the preserved dental rows and is constructed by type of multi-sized clamps that ensure the immobilization of teeth in the horizontal plane, leaving them unprotected from the action of the vertical load, developing during chewing. Elements of cake clammers, occlusal linings and vestibular clawing processes allow you to achieve a good pinning effect.

Fig. 44. Removable tire Elbrecht: A - Elbrecht bus (explanation in the text); B - varieties of multi-sized (continuous) clammer: 1 - high position of the clammer (in the upper part of the gear surface) of the drop-shaped form; 2 - the location of the clammer in the middle part of the gear surface; 3 is the low position of the clammer (in the enhancing half of the germination surface); 4 - CLAMMER in the form of a wide strip

Removable tire with denot-alveolar clames in V.N. Copekin.The removable tire of Elbrecht was modified by V.N. Kopeykype, which suggested to enhance the retention properties and achieve a better aesthetic effect to use T-shaped clummers of rowcha. Multiple clammers in this design are lowered below the gauge edge and in the form of an arc there are a palate of alveolar processes of the front departments of jaws with vestibular and paternal sides. T-shaped clammers are deployed from them to each front teuba, whose shoulders are located in the zones of submution. The tire can be recommended for stable or movable 0-1 degrees of front teeth, when the pin-shaped properties of the holding of T-shaped clammers will not have a harmful effect on the patient periodontal (Fig. 45). To do this, it is necessary to place the shoulders of T-shaped clammers in such a way that they are outside the zone of undercutting. The fixing properties of the tire are provided by introducing into the zone of submuting those cast shoulders of the clammers, which are located on stable teeth with the least affected periodontail. This sewn as well as all other solid structures should be molded using refractory models. The removable tire of Elbrecht can be enhanced with arcs located on the paternal surface of the alveolar leaf of the lower jaw or the top of the sky (Fig. A, b). If such a pinning design is applied only to shining side teeth, a napseagittal stabilization is achieved (Fig. B, D).

Fig. Removable tires, reinforced arcs for the bottom (A) and the upper jaw (b). Tire design to create a para-sagittal stabilization: in - on the model; G - General Tire View

Fig. M.Removable spike with cast kappa for the front teeth: a - on the plaster model; b - frame of removable tire

Fig. 48. Removable shids for the front teeth; a - removable circular tire; B - removable spikes in the form of a continuous clamber with cogtevidymn process

In general, in the absence of several teeth and severe periodontal pathology, preference is given to removable prosthesis. The design of the prosthesis is selected strictly individually and requires several visits to the doctor.

Removable design requires careful planning and a certain sequence of actions:

Diagnosis and surveys of periodontal.

Preparation of the surface of the teeth and getting the casts for the future model

Studying Model and Tire Design Planning

Tire wax reproduction modeling

Obtaining a foundry and checking the accuracy of the frame on the plaster model

Checking tires (protein tires) in the oral cavity

Final finish (polishing) tires

Not all working steps are listed here, but even this list indicates the complexity of the procedure for manufacturing a removable tire (protein tires). The complexity of the manufacture explains the need for several sessions of the patient and the duration of time from the first to the last visit to the doctor. But the result of all efforts is always alone - the restoration of anatomy and physiology, leading to the restoration of health and social rehabilitation.