Composition of computer technology. Computing equipment Composition of computing equipment

When considering computers, it is customary to distinguish between their architecture and structure.

What characteristics of a computer are standardized to implement the principle of open architecture?

Only the description of the principle of operation of the computer and its configuration (a certain set of hardware and connections between them) are regulated and standardized. Thus, the computer can be assembled from individual assemblies and parts, designed and manufactured by independent manufacturers. The computer can be easily expanded and upgraded due to the presence of internal expansion slots, into which the user can insert a variety of devices, and, thereby, set the configuration of his machine in accordance with his personal preferences.

Indicate the distinctive features of classical architecture ("von Neumann")?

Von Neumann architecture. One arithmetic logic unit (ALU), through which the data stream passes, and one control unit (CU), through which the instruction stream passes - the program. This is a uniprocessor computer. This type of architecture includes the architecture of a personal computer with a common bus. All functional blocks are connected here with a common bus, also called a system bus.

Physically, the backbone is a multi-wire line with sockets for connecting electronic circuits. The collection of trunk wires is divided into separate groups: address bus, data bus and control bus.

Peripheral devices (printer, etc.) are connected to the computer hardware through special controllers - peripheral device control devices.

Controller- a device that connects peripheral equipment or communication channels with the central processor, freeing the processor from direct control of the operation of this equipment.

What are the advantages of standard and non-standard computer architectures?

Standard architectures address a wide variety of different tasks. At the same time, the speed advantage of multiprocessor and multicomputer systems over single-processor ones is obvious. When solving some specific problems, a non-standard architecture allows you to get high performance.

What are the most common areas of application of standard and non-standard computer architectures

1. Classical architecture. This is a uniprocessor computer. This type of architecture includes the architecture of a personal computer with a common bus. Peripheral devices (printer, etc.) are connected to the computer hardware through special controllers - peripheral device control devices.

2. Multiprocessor architecture. Having multiple processors in a computer means that many data streams and many instruction streams can be organized in parallel. Thus, several fragments of the same task can be executed in parallel.

3. Multi-machine computing system. Here, several processors included in the computing system do not have a common random access memory, but each have their own (local). Each computer in a multicomputer system has a classical architecture, and such a system is widely used. The effect of using such a computing system can be obtained only when solving problems that have a very special structure: it must be broken down into as many loosely coupled subtasks as there are computers in the system. The speed advantage of multiprocessor and multi-machine computing systems over single-processor ones is obvious.

4. Architecture with parallel processors. Here several ALUs operate under the control of one CU. This means that a lot of data can be processed by one program - that is, one stream of instructions. High performance of such an architecture can be obtained only on tasks in which the same computational operations are performed simultaneously on different datasets of the same type. In modern cars, there are often elements different types architectural solutions. There are also such architectural solutions that are radically different from those discussed above.

Point out the merits of open and closed computer architectures

Advantages of open architecture:

Competition between manufacturers has led to a reduction in the cost of computer components, and hence the computers themselves.

The emergence of a large number of computer equipment has allowed buyers to expand their choice, which also contributed to lower prices for components and an increase in their quality.

The modular structure of the computer and ease of assembly allowed users to independently choose the devices they need and easily install them, it also became possible to assemble and upgrade their computer without any special difficulties at home.

Upgradeability meant that users were able to choose a computer based on their real needs and pocket thickness, which again contributed to the increasing popularity of personal computers.

The advantage of a closed architecture:

The closed architecture prevents other manufacturers from issuing additional external devices, so there is no problem of compatibility between devices from different manufacturers.

Why are the hardware and software configuration of a computer considered separately?

Position 13 Basic hardware configuration of a personal computer

Self-help questions

Describe the functions of the processor. Indicate the main characteristics of the processor and their typical values.

Main processor functions:

Fetching (reading) executable commands;

Input (reading) data from memory or input / output device;

Output (write) data to memory or input / output devices;

Data processing (operands), including arithmetic operations on them;

Memory addressing, that is, setting the memory address with which the exchange will be made;

Interrupt handling and direct access mode.

Processor specifications:

The number of bits of the data bus

The number of bits of its address bus

The number of control signals in the control bus.

The width of the data bus determines the speed of the system. The width of the address bus determines the allowable complexity of the system. The number of control lines determines the variety of exchange modes and the efficiency of the processor exchange with other system devices.

In addition to the pins for the signals of the three main buses, the processor always has a pin (or two pins) for connecting an external clock signal or quartz resonator(CLK) because the processor is always a clocked device. The higher the clock speed of the processor, the faster it works, that is, the faster it executes commands. However, the speed of the processor is determined not only by the clock frequency, but also by the peculiarities of its structure. Modern processors execute most instructions in one clock cycle and have facilities for executing multiple instructions in parallel. The processor clock frequency is not directly and rigidly related to the trunk exchange rate, since the trunk exchange rate is limited by signal propagation delays and signal distortions on the trunk. That is, the clock frequency of the processor determines only its internal speed, and not the external one. Sometimes the processor clock speed has a lower and upper limit. If the upper frequency limit is exceeded, the processor may overheat, as well as malfunctions, and, what is most unpleasant, occurring not always and irregularly.

Initial reset signal RESET. When the power is turned on, in an emergency or when the processor freezes, this signal initializes the processor, forcing it to start executing the bootstrap program. An emergency situation can be caused by noise on the power and ground circuits, memory failures, external ionizing radiation and many more reasons. As a result, the processor can lose control over the program being executed and stop at some address. To exit this state, the initial reset signal is used. This initial reset input can also be used to alert the processor that the supply voltage has dropped below a specified limit. In this case, the processor proceeds to the program for saving important data. In fact, this input is a special kind of radial interrupt.

Sometimes the processor chip has one or two more radial interrupt inputs to handle special situations (for example, for an external timer interrupt).

The power bus of a modern processor usually has one supply voltage (+ 5V or + 3.3V) and a common wire ("ground"). Early processors often required multiple supply voltages. Some processors have a low power mode. In general, modern processor chips, especially those with high clock frequencies, consume quite a lot of power. As a result, to maintain normal working temperature cases, they often have to install radiators, fans or even special micro-refrigerators.

To connect the processor to the backbone, buffer chips are used to provide demultiplexing of signals and electrical buffering of the backbone signals, if necessary. Sometimes the exchange protocols on the system bus and on the processor buses do not coincide with each other, then the buffer microcircuits also coordinate these protocols with each other. Sometimes in a microprocessor system, several highways (system and local) are used, then a separate buffer node is used for each of the highways. This structure is typical, for example, for personal computers.

After power-up, the processor goes to the first address of the startup program and executes this program. This program pre-recorded in permanent (non-volatile) memory. After the end of the bootstrap program, the processor starts executing the main program located in permanent or random access memory, for which it selects all commands in turn. The processor can be distracted from this program by external interrupts or DMA requests. The processor selects commands from memory by means of read cycles along the line. If necessary, the processor writes data to memory or I / O devices using write cycles, or reads data from memory or from I / O devices using read cycles.

Indicate what is the basis for dividing computer memory into internal and external. Please list what is included in the internal memory?

The internal memory of a computer is designed to store programs and data with which the processor works directly while the computer is turned on. V modern computers internal memory elements are manufactured on microcircuits. The external memory of the computer is designed for long-term storage large amounts of information. Turning off the power of the computer does not result in loss of data in the external memory. Internal memory includes RAM, cache and special memory.

Describe the functions of RAM. Indicate the main characteristics of random access memory and their typical values.

Random access memory - (RAM, English RAM, Random Access Memory - memory with random access) is a fast storage device of not very large volume, directly connected to the processor and designed to write, read and store executable programs and data processed by these programs.

RAM is used only for temporary storage of data and programs, because when the machine is turned off, everything that was in RAM is lost. Direct access to the elements of RAM - this means that each byte of memory has its own individual address.

The amount of RAM is usually 32 to 512 MB. For simple administrative tasks, 32 MB of RAM is sufficient, but complex computer design tasks can require 512 MB to 2 GB of RAM.

Typically, RAM is executed from SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) memory integrated circuits. Each information bit in SDRAM is stored as electric charge a tiny capacitor formed in the structure of a semiconductor crystal. Due to leakage currents, such capacitors are quickly discharged, and they are periodically (approximately every 2 milliseconds) recharged by special devices. This process is called Refresh Memory. SDRAM chips have a capacity of 16 - 256 Mbit or more. They are installed in housings and assembled into memory modules.

What is the purpose of external memory? List the types of external memory devices.

External memory (OVC) is designed for long-term storage programs and data, and the integrity of its contents does not depend on whether the computer is turned on or off. Unlike RAM, external memory has no direct connection to the processor.

The external memory of the computer includes:

Hard disk drives;

Floppy disk drives;

Compact disc drives;

Magneto-optical compact disks;

Tape drives (streamers), etc.

Describe how it works hard disk... Indicate the main characteristics of the hard disk and their typical values.

Drive for hard magnetic disks - (English HDD - Hard Disk Drive) or hard drive- this is the most popular mass storage device of large capacity, in which information carriers are round aluminum plates - platter, both surfaces of which are covered with a layer of magnetic material. Used for permanent storage of information - programs and data.

Like a floppy disk, plotters' work surfaces are divided into circular concentric tracks, and the tracks are divided into sectors. The read / write heads, together with their carrier structure and disks, are enclosed in a hermetically sealed enclosure called a data module. When a data module is inserted into the drive, it automatically connects to the system that supplies cleaned, cooled air. The surface of the plotter is magnetically coated with a thickness of only 1.1 microns, as well as a layer of grease to protect the head from damage when lowering and lifting on the go. As the plotter rotates, an air layer forms above it, which provides an air cushion for the head to hang at a height of 0.5 microns above the disk surface.

Winchester drives have a very large capacity: from 10 to 100 GB. In modern models, the spindle (rotating shaft) rotation speed is usually 7200 rpm, the average data retrieval time is 9 ms, the average data transfer rate is up to 60 MB / s. Unlike a floppy disk, a hard disk spins continuously. All modern drives are equipped with a built-in cache (usually 2 MB), which significantly improves their performance. The Winchester drive is connected to the processor through the hard disk controller.

What are device ports? Describe the main types of ports.

Composition of the computing system. Composition of the computing system Consider the hardware and software configurations. Interfaces of any computing system can be conditionally divided into serial and parallel. The system level is transitional, which ensures the interaction of other programs of a computer system as with programs basic level and directly with hardware, in particular with a central processor.

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Lecture 4. The history of the development of computer technology. Classification of computers. Composition of the computing system. Hardware and software... Classification of service and application programs funds

The history of the development of computing technology

The first calculating devices were mechanical devices. In 1642 a French mechanic Blaise Pascal developed a compact summing device - mechanical calculator.

In 1673 German mathematician and philosopher Leibniz improved it by addingmultiplication and division operations... Over the course of the 18th century, more and more advanced, but still mechanical computing devices based on gear, rack and pinion, lever and other mechanisms were developed.

The idea of ​​programming computational operations came from hourly industry. Such programming was tough: the same operation was performed at the same time (for example, the work of a machine on a copier).

The idea of ​​flexible programmingcomputational operations was expressed by an English mathematicianCharles Babbage in 1836-1848 A feature of his analytical engine was the principle of dividing information intocommands and data... However, the project was never implemented.

Computing programs on Babbage's machine, compiled by the daughter of the poet Byron Adoy Lovelace (1815-1852), are very similar to the programs compiled later for the first computers. This wonderful woman was namedthe first programmer in the world.

When switching from registration mode provisions mechanical device to the regime registration states of electronic device elementsdecimal system becameinconvenient, since the states of the elements are only two : on and off.

Possibility to represent anynumbers in binary formwas first expressed by Leibniz in 1666.

The idea behind encoding logical statements into mathematical expressions:

• true (True) or false (False);
• in binary code 0 or 1,

was implemented by the English mathematician George Boole (1815-1864) in the first half XIX century.

However, the Boolean algebra of logic developed by him found application only in the next century, when a mathematical apparatus was needed to design computer circuits using the binary number system. "Connected" mathematical logic with binary system reckoning and electrical circuits by the American scientist Claude Shannon in his famous dissertation (1936).

In logical algebra, when creating computers, they are used in basically 4 operations:

• AND (intersection or conjunction - A^ B);
• OR (union or disjunction - AvB);
• NOT (inversion - | A);
• EXCLUSIVE OR ( A * | B + | A * B).

In 1936 the English mathematician A. Turing and, independently of him E. Post, put forward and developed the concept ofabstract computing machine... They proved the fundamental possibility of solving any problem by automata, provided that it is possible to algorithmize it.

In 1946, a report was drawn up by John von Neumann, Goldstein and Burks (Princeton Institute for Advanced Study), which contained a detailed description ofprinciples of building digital computersthat are still in use today.

1. The architecture of John von Neumann's computers includes:
   1. CPUconsisting of a control unit (CU) and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU);
   2. memory : operational (RAM) and external;
   3. Input Devices;
   4. output devices.
2. The principles of the computer, proposed by von Neumann:
   1. uniformity of memory;
   2. program control ;
   3. targeting.
3. The main generations of computers and their characteristics can be distinguished:

Years application	1955-60	1960 - 65	1965 - 70	1970 - 90	From 1990 to the present time
Basic element	Electronic lamp	Transistor	IP (1400 elements)	Big IP (tens of thousands elements)	Big IP (millions elements)
Computer example	IBM 701 (1952)	IBM 360-40 (1964)	IBM 370- 145 (1970)	IBM 370-168 (1972 g.)	IBM Server z990 2003
Fast-paced result, oper. / s	8 000	246 000	1 230 000	7 700 000	9*10 9
RAM capacity, byte	20 480	256 000	512 000	8 200 000	256*10 9
Note	Shannon, background Neumann, Norbert Wiener	Languages FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL	Minicom- pewter, OS MS DOS, Unix OS, network	PC, graphic sky OS, the Internet	Artificial ny intelligence, recognizing speech, laser

The rapid development of computing systems began in the 60s of the 20th century with the rejection ofelectronic tubes and development semiconductor, and then laser technology.

Efficiency Computers (computers) grew significantly in the 70s of the 20th century with the development of processors based onintegrated circuits.

A quantum leap in the development of computers took place in the 80s. XX century with the invention personal computer and the development of a worldwide information network - the Internet.

Computer classification

1. By appointment:
   • supercomputers;
   • servers;
   • embedded computers (microprocessors);
   • personal computers(PC).

Supercomputers - computing centers- created for solving extremely complex computational problems (modeling complex phenomena, processing extremely large amounts of information, making forecasts, etc.).

Servers (from the English word serve to serve, manage) - computers that provide the work of a local or global network specializing in the provision of information services and maintenance of computers of large enterprises, banks, educational institutions, etc.

Embedded computers (microprocessors) have become widespread in manufacturing and household appliances, where control can be reduced to the execution of a limited sequence of commands (robots on a conveyor belt, onboard robots integrated into household appliances, etc.)

Personal computers ( PC ) are designed to be used by one person, therefore they are used everywhere. They were born on August 12, 1981, when IBM introduced their first model. PCs have made a computer revolution in the lives of millions of people and have had a huge impact on the development of human society.

PC are divided into mass, business, portable, entertainment, and workstations.

PC standards:

• Consumer PC (mainstream)
  • Office PC (business);
  • Entertainment PC (entertainment);
  • Workstation PC ( work station);
  • Mobile PC (portable).

Most PCs are mass-produced.

Business (office) PC contain professional programs, but they minimize the requirements for graphics and audio playback tools.

In entertainment PC funds are widely represented Multimedia.

Workstations have increased data storage requirements.

For portable devices, it is mandatory to have access to a computer network.

1. By the level of specialization:
   • universal;
   • specialized (examples: file server, Web -server, print server, etc.).
2. By standard sizes:
   • desktop (desktop);
   • wearable (notebook, iPad);
   • pocket (palmtop);
   • mobile computing devices (PDA - p ersonal d igital a ssist a nt) that combine the functions of palmtop and cell phones.
3. Hardware compatibility:
   • IBM PC;
   • Apple Macintosh.
4. By processor type:
   • Intel (in personal computers from IBM);
   • Motorola (in Macintosh personal computers).

Computing system composition

Consider the hardware and software configuration, since often the solution to the same problems can be provided by both hardware and software. The criterion in each case is work efficiency.

It is believed that increasing the efficiency of work due to the development of hardware is on average more expensive, but the implementation of solutions by software requires highly qualified personnel.

Hardware

To the hardware providing computing systems includedevices and devices(a block-modular design is used).

Internal and external devices are distinguished by the way the devices are placed relative to the central processing unit. External are input-output devices (peripheral devices) and additional devices designed for long-term data storage.

Coordination between individual blocks and nodes is carried out using transitional hardware-logical devices - hardware interfaces operating in accordance with approved standards.

Interfaces of any computing system can be roughly divided intoserial and parallel.

Parallel interfaces are more complex, require synchronization of the transmitting and receiving devices, but have higher performance, which is measuredbytes per second(byte / s, KB / s, MB / s). Used (now rarely) when connecting a printer.

Consecutive - easier and slower, they are calledasynchronous interfaces... Due to the lack of synchronization of the parcels, the payload data is preceded and terminated by overhead data packets (for 1 byte - 1-3 service bits), the performance is measuredbits per second(bit / s, kbps, Mbps).

They are used to connect input, output and information storage devices of a mouse, keyboard, flash memory, sensors, voice recorders, video cameras, communication devices, printers, etc.

Standards on hardware interfaces in VT are called protocols. A protocol is a set of technical conditions that must be provided by developers computer technology to successfully coordinate the operation of devices.

Software

Software (software) or software configuration are programs (ordered sequences of commands). There is a relationship between programs: some work relying on others (of a lower level), that is, we should talk about an interprogram interface.

1. Basic level (BIOS) - most lower level. Basic security responsible for interacting with the underlying hardware. Basic software is stored on a microcircuit permanent storage device - ROM (Read Only Memory (ROM)).

If the parameters of the basic tools need to be changed during operation, applyreprogrammable Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM ). The implementation of the EPROM is carried out using a "non-volatile memory" microcircuit or CMOS which also works when the computer boots up.

1. System level- transitional, ensuring the interaction of other programs of a computer system, both with basic level programs, and directly with hardware, in particular with a central processor.

The system support includes:

• device drivers- programs that ensure the interaction of a computer with specific devices;
• installation tools programs;
• standard means user interface,ensuring effective interaction with the user, entering data into the system and obtaining the result.

The set of system-level programs formscore operating system PC.

If the computer is equipped with system-level software, then it is already prepared:

• to the interaction of software with equipment;
• to install programs more high levels;
• and most importantly, user interaction.

mandatory and mostly sufficient condition to ensure work person on the computer.

1. Service levelsoftware makes it possible to work with both basic-level programs and system-level programs. Main purpose utilities(utilities) - in the automation of work on checking, adjusting and configuring the PC. In addition, they are used to expand and improve the functions of system programs. Some of the service-level programs are included as standard with the operating system.

There are two alternative directions in the development and operation of utility programs: integration with the operating system and autonomous operation.

In the second case, they provide the user with more possibilities for personalization their interactions with hardware and software.

1. Application levelis a complex of applied programs with the help of which specific tasks are performed at a given workplace. Their range is very wide (from production to entertainment).

Availability of application software and breadth of functionality PC directly depends on the operating system used, that is, what system tools its core contains and, therefore, how it provides interaction: a person - programs - equipment.

Utility software classification

1. File managers(file managers). They can be used to copy, move and rename files, create directories, delete files and directories, search for files and navigate the file structure (for example, Explorer ( Windows Explorer)).
2. Archivers - file compression tools
3. Viewers and playback tools... Simple and versatile viewers that do not provide editing, but allow you to view (reproduce) documents of different types.
4. Diagnostic tools- to automate the diagnostic processes of software and hardware... Used not only for troubleshooting, but also to optimize the performance of your computer.
5. Controls (monitoring) or monitors - allow you to monitor the processes occurring in the computer. Two modes are used: monitoring in real time and monitoring with recording the results in a protocol file (used when monitoring must be provided automatically and remotely).
6. Installation monitors- provide control of software installation, monitor the state of the environment software environment, allow you to restore links lost as a result of removing previously installed programs.

The simplest monitors are usually part of the operating system and are located at the system level.

1. Means of communication(communication programs) - connections with remote computers, serve the transmission of e-mail messages, etc.
2. Means of support computer security (active and passive). Passive protection means are programs Reserve copy... As means active protection use antivirus software.
3. Means of electronic digital signature (EDS).

Classification of application programs

1. Text editors(Notepad, WordPad , Lexicon, editor Norton Commander, etc.).
2. Word processors(they allow not only to enter and edit texts, but also to format them, that is, to format them). Thus, the means of ensuring interaction are among the means of word processors. text, graphics , tables, as well as tools for automating the formatting process (Word).
3. Graphic editor... These are raster (dot), vector editors and creation tools three-dimensional graphics (3D editors).

In raster editors ( Paint ) graphic object is represented as a combination of dots, each of which has properties of brightness and color. This option is effective in cases where the image has many halftones, and information about the color of the object's elements is more important than information about their shape. Bitmap editors They are widely used for image retouching, creating photo effects, but they are not always convenient for creating new images and are uneconomical, because images have a lot of redundancy.

In vector editors ( CorelDraw ) the elementary object of the image is not a point, but a line. This approach is typical for drawing and graphic works, when the shape of the lines is more important than information about the color of individual points that make up it. This view is much more compact than the raster view. Vector editors are convenient for creating images, but they are practically not used for processing finished drawings.

Editors 3D graphics allow you to flexibly control the interaction of object surface properties with the properties of light sources, as well as create 3D animation, so they are also called 3 D-animators.

1. Database management systems(DBMS). Their main functions are:

• creating an empty database;
• providing means for filling it in and importing data from tables of another database;
• providing the ability to access data, search and filter tools.

1. Spreadsheets... These are complex tools for storing and processing data ( Excel ). Provides a wide variety of methods for working with numeric data.
2. Computer-aided design systems(CAD systems). Designed to automate design work, and can also perform elementary calculations and the selection of structural elements from databases.
3. Desktop publishing systems... Designed to automate the process of layout of printed publications. They occupy an intermediate position between word processors and computer-aided design systems. A typical use case is to apply to documents that have passed preprocessing in word processors and graphics editors.
4. Expert systems(analysis of data contained in knowledge bases). Their characteristic feature is the ability for self-development (if necessary, it generates a sufficient set of questions to an expert and automatically improve its quality).
5. WEB - editors ... Combine properties of text and graphic editors and are intended for creation and editing WEB - documents.
6. Browsers (viewers WEB - documents).
7. Integrated office systems.The main functions are editing and formatting of the simplest documents, centralization of e-mail, fax and telephone communications, dispatching and monitoring of enterprise documents.
8. Accounting systems - combine the functions of text and spreadsheet editors, provide automation of preparation and accounting of primary documents, maintaining accounts of the accounting plan, preparation of regular reporting.
9. Financial analyticalsystems. They are used in banking and exchange structures. They allow you to monitor and predict the situation in the financial, stock and commodity markets, analyze, prepare reports.
10. Geoinformationsystems (GIS). Designed to automate cartographic and geodetic works.
11. Video editing systems- video processing.
12. Educational, developmental, reference and entertainmentprograms. Their feature is the increased requirements for multimedia (musical compositions, graphic animation and video materials).

In addition to hardware and software, there areInformation Support (spell checker, dictionaries, thesauri, etc.)

In specialized computer systems (onboard), the set of software and information support is called mathematical software.

PAGE 7

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Let's take a look at its parts.

To the main technical means personal computer include:

- system unit;

- monitor (display);

- keyboard.

In addition, you can connect to the computer, for example:

- a printer;

- mouse;

- scanner;

- modem (modulator-demodulator);

- plotter;

- joystick, etc.

System unit

The system unit is the main unit inside which the most important components are installed. System unit (see Fig. 2.2., 2.3.) - this is a case in which almost all the hardware of the computer is located.

Devices inside the system unit are called internal, and devices connected to it externally are called external. External accessories, also called peripheral.

Internal organization system unit:

· motherboard;

· HDD:

· Floppy disk drive;

· CD-ROM drive;

· Video card (video adapter);

· sound card;

· power unit.

Systems located on motherboard :

· RAM;

· Processor;

ROM chip and BIOS system;

Bus interfaces, etc.

Magnetic disks, unlike random access memory, are designed for permanent storage of information.

There are two types of magnetic disks used in the PC:

· Hard non-removable disk (hard drive);

Replaceable, floppy disks(floppy disks).

HDD intended for permanent storage of the information that is more or less often used in work: operating system programs, compilers from programming languages, service (maintenance) programs, user application programs, text documents, database files, etc. Winchester significantly outperforms floppy disks in terms of access speed, capacity and reliability.

It is customary to classify electronic computers according to a number of characteristics, in particular: according to the functionality and nature of the tasks being solved, according to the method of organizing the computing process, according to architectural features and computing power.

In terms of functionality and the nature of the tasks being solved, the following are distinguished:

Universal (general purpose) computers;

Problem-oriented computers;

Specialized computers.

Mainframe computers are designed to solve a variety of engineering and technical problems that differ in the complexity of algorithms and a large amount of processed data.

Problem-oriented computers are designed to solve a narrower range of tasks related to registration, accumulation and processing of small amounts of data.

Specialized computers are used to solve a narrow range of tasks (microprocessors and controllers that perform the functions of controlling technical devices).

By the way the computing process is organized Computers are subdivided into uniprocessor and multiprocessor, as well as sequential and parallel.

Uniprocessor. The computer has one central processor and all computational operations and operations to control information input-output devices are carried out on this processor.

Multiprocessor. The computer has several processors between which functions for organizing the computing process and controlling information input-output devices are redistributed.

Consistent. They work in a single-program mode, when the operation of the computer is built in such a way that it can execute only one program, and all its resources are used only in the interests of the executable program.

Parallel. They work in multiprogram mode, when several user programs are in execution in the computer and resources are divided between these programs, ensuring their parallel execution.

By architectural features and computing power, they are distinguished:

Consider the classification scheme for computers on this basis (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Computer classification by architectural features

and processing power.

Supercomputers- these are the most powerful computers in terms of speed and performance. Supercomputers include "Cray" and "IBM SP2" (USA). They are used for solving large-scale computational problems and modeling, for complex computations in aerodynamics, meteorology, high energy physics, and also find application in the financial sector.

Large machines or mainframes (Mainframe). Mainframes are used in the financial sector, the defense industry, and are used to equip departmental, territorial and regional computing centers.

Medium computers general purpose are used to control complex technological production processes.

Mini-computer focused on use as control computer systems, as network servers.

Microcomputer are computers that use a microprocessor as a central processing unit. These include embedded microcomputers (embedded in various equipment, apparatus or devices) and personal computers PC.

Personal computers. They have gained rapid development in the last 20 years. A personal computer (PC) is designed to serve one workplace and is able to meet the needs of small businesses and individuals. With the advent of the Internet, the popularity of the PC has increased significantly, since with the help of a personal computer, you can use scientific, reference, educational and entertainment information.

Personal computers include desktop and laptop computers. Portable computers include Notebooks (notebook or notebook) and personal computers (Personal Computers Handheld - Handheld PC, Personal Digital Assistants - PDA and Palmtop).

Built-in computers. Computers that are used in various devices, systems, complexes to implement specific functions. For example car diagnostics.

Since 1999, an international certification standard, the PC99 specification, has been used to classify PCs. According to this specification, PCs are divided into the following groups:

· Mass PC (Consumer PC);

· Business PCs (Office PC);

· Portable PCs (Mobile PC);

· Workstations (WorkStation);

· Entertainment PCs (Entertaiment PC).

Most PCs belong to massive and includes a standard (minimum required) set of hardware. This set includes: system unit, display, keyboard, mouse-type manipulator. If necessary, this set can be easily supplemented with other devices at the request of the user, for example, a printer.

Business PCs include a minimum of graphics and sound playback tools.

Laptop PCs are distinguished by the availability of means of communication of remote access.

Workstations meet the increased memory requirements of storage devices.

Entertainment PC focused on high quality graphics and sound reproduction.

By design features PCs are divided into:

Stationary (desktop, Desktop);

Portable:

· Portable (Laptop);

· Notebooks (Notebook);

· Pocket (Рalmtop).

There are many systems for classifying computers. We'll cover just a few of them, focusing on the ones that are most frequently mentioned in the available technical literature and the media.

Classification by purpose
Classification by purpose is one of the earliest classification methods. It has to do with how the computer is applied. According to this principle, large computers (electronic computers), mini-computers, micro-computers and personal computers are distinguished, which, in turn, are subdivided into mass, business, portable, entertainment and work stations.

The composition of a computing system is called a configuration. Computer hardware and software are usually considered separately. Accordingly, the hardware configuration of computing systems and their software configuration are considered separately. This principle of separation is of particular importance for informatics, since very often the solution of the same problems can be provided by both hardware and software. The criteria for choosing a hardware or software solution are performance and efficiency.

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